see attachment title 4dc b
|
Classroom Incident |
Your written response to this discussion prompt assesses your ability to identify data collection tools appropriate for student observations. This discussion also supports your achievement of Course Learning Outcome 3 and the MASE Program Learning Outcome 6.
In order to properly write positive behavior goals and create intervention plans, teachers and educators must be able to conduct observations of students, accurately define the behavior in observable terms, and provide a hypothesis for why the behavior transpired.
As you complete the discussion and assignment this week, reflect back on ESE645: Lesson Design for Students with Mild to Moderate Disabilities. In this course, you created SMART goals for academics. Think about how you could use the same principles of SMART goal creation for behavior. Use this week’s article,
S.M.A.R.T. Behavior Change Outcome Objectives (Links to an external site.)
, to help you.
For this discussion, you will be reviewing your observation recordings from the first discussion in Week Four and providing a hypothesis on why the observed behavior occurred.
Initial Post: Post an initial response that addresses the following areas:
· Attach the three observation forms completed from the first discussion in Week Four (Data Collection).
· First, in one paragraph, summarize the antecedent, behavior, and consequence conditions from all three observations.
· Next, in one paragraph, describe the function of behavior (attention, escape, access/control, sensory/stimulation) and rationale for the choice.
Guided Response: Respond to at least two peers. Ask questions of your peers about their responses to encourage further conversation. In your responses, discuss how the use of SMART goals supports the antecedent, behavior, and consequences described. Reflect on how your response to the discussion is in concert with or contrasts your peers’ responses.
Teaching
Students with Mild and Moderate Disabilities:
Research-Based Practices
SECOND EDITION
Libby G. Cohen
National Institute of Education, Singapore
Loraine J. Spenciner
University of Maine, Farmington
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cohen, Libby G.
Teaching students with mild and moderate disabilities : research-based practices / Libby G. Cohen, Loraine J. Spenciner.– 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
ISBN-1
3
: 9
7
8-0-13-233138-8
ISBN-
10
: 0-13-233138-1
1. Children with disabilities–Education–United States. I. Spenciner,
Loraine J. II. Title.
LC4031.C64 2009
371.92’6–dc22 2008008700
Vice President and Executive Publisher: Jeffery W. Johnston
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Part and Chapter Opening Photo Credits: Jack Hollingsworth/Getty Images,
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; Anthony Magnacca/Merrill,
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Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458.
All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department.
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Chapter 2
Understanding Students with Learning Disabilities,
ADHD
, and Other Health Impairments
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
Compare and contrast the characteristics of a disability and the effect on learning and behavior, from mild to more significant involvement.
Describe some of the causes of learning disabilities and the characteristics of students who receive special education services under this eligibility category.
Describe some of the causes of ADHD and the characteristics of students who receive special education services under this eligibility category.
Describe some of the causes of other health impairments and the characteristics of students who receive special education services under this eligibility category.
Preparing to teach students with disabilities involves understanding not only about the federal mandates that we read about in
Chapter 1
but also students and how the characteristics of a disability affect learning, behavior, and social interactions. Understanding more about a specific disability helps special educators identify students who may be eligible for special education services. This understanding also provides an important foundation for planning specialized instruction and selecting appropriate methods, instructional strategies, and materials. This chapter examines the causes and characteristics of learning disabilities, ADHD, and other health impairments.
Chapter 3
provides a closer look at the causes and characteristics of emotional disturbance, mental retardation, and autism spectrum disorders.
Previous section
Next section
2.1 Recognizing Disabilities and Their Effects
Although students in individual classrooms may have different educational or medical diagnoses, they probably have similar needs. Their teachers will be striving to improve their academic knowledge, communication skills, appropriate behaviors, social skills, attention, organization, or self-advocacy. In learning to teach students with disabilities, special educators must not only understand the characteristics of a specific disability but also recognize and address the common needs of all students.
Each of us, whether or not we have a disability, has a unique combination of individual characteristics; indeed, characteristics are what make each of us a special individual. For example, we may prefer to study alone or with others; listen to music while reading; or jot down notes or construct concept maps while planning a lesson.
The term
characteristics
encompasses broad areas that define the individual, including the individual’s knowledge; motivation; academic skills; physical, social, and emotional attributes; and the environments in which the individual lives, works, and plays. Many factors influence a person’s characteristics; for example, having opportunities to learn affects student knowledge; living in poverty affects physical health and well-being; being in an abusive environment frequently affects emotional health and self-esteem. Factors that influence an individual’s characteristics also include the absence or presence of a disability and the type of disability. In the classroom, educators observe a cluster of student characteristics that may indicate that a student has a disability.
For example, a learning disability or an attention deficit can affect a student’s ability to acquire, process, or retain information. A student might misunderstand the unwritten code of what teenagers believe to be acceptable behavior in the hallways or frequently misinterprets what others say. A student who is constantly distracted because of ADHD has difficulty following a class discussion. A student with a health impairment may miss classroom discussions altogether because of repeated absences due to limited strength or a chronic health condition that requires hospitalization.
Because some disabilities affect development and acquisition of certain skills, they are more likely to be exhibited and identified at certain age levels. For example, parents may observe that their toddler is not using words when other children are beginning to talk. When a child enters elementary school, teachers are often the first to observe problems in attention, listening, and learning to read, write, and understand mathematics. Later, teachers may observe difficulties in understanding concepts or synthesizing information. A student entering middle school needs to manage rotating schedules, work with team teachers, and juggle multiple assignments. During these years, observant teachers can identify a student who is experiencing difficulty with organizational skills. In high school, a student is expected to take more personal responsibility, to identify goals to further education or training, and to develop skills for living and working within the community. Transition periods are difficult times for all teenagers; for a student with a disability, transitions may be even more difficult because of problems in learning, conforming to the demands of the school environment, or challenges in overcoming physical or social barriers.
As we study the characteristics of specific disabilities, we will use the disability categories as defined by IDEA. Some states use different terms to describe disability categories, such as mild, moderate, and severe. Many educators feel that using mild, moderate, or severe categories provides a helpful way to describe student needs because each category generally implies the degree of difficulty that a student is experiencing. Simply knowing that students have learning disabilities or mental retardation does not provide that level of information. Also, educators who work with students with disabilities with similar needs often use common teaching methods and strategies across disability areas.
Knowledge of the characteristics of students with disabilities assists special educators in identifying students who may have a disability and who should be referred for special education services. Understanding these characteristics helps special educators address student strengths and limitations, develop and implement instruction, plan accommodations or modifications, and monitor and evaluate IEPs (
Figure 2.1
). Special educators also use knowledge of characteristics of students with disabilities to help answer questions and deal with concerns about students. However, no two students with the same disability are alike; each student has unique skills, knowledge, abilities, gifts—and needs.
Figure 2.1 Special educators use knowledge of student characteristics to assist in their work with other teachers, with team members, and with students and their families
To envision how the characteristics of a disability affect the learning and behavior of two students, we could think of disabilities as a continuum. At one end is a student who has a mild disability because the student experiences limited difficulties in academic or behavioral areas. For example, Jose is experiencing difficulty in learning how to read. His IEP targets reading and describes how he will work toward reading achievement. Another student, Lili, has the same educational diagnosis but is at the other end of the continuum. Her learning disability affects her educational functioning to a more significant degree. Lili experiences difficulty in reading, understanding and processing language, organizing and managing time, and managing behavior. Her IEP specifies goals for improving reading and language processing with specialized instruction, a goal for improving organizational skills and time management, and a plan to improve behavior.
Other students with a similar disability may be elsewhere in on the continuum. Developing knowledge of a disability provides a starting point for educators in terms of making connections and having conversations. However, overreliance on labels causes misunderstandings and leads to erroneous conclusions. Special educators know that students with mild to moderate disabilities learn, grow, and achieve when given appropriate learning opportunities, support, and experiences that address their needs and abilities.
Internet resources provide educators with a wealth of information about working with students with disabilities. Educators can join mailing lists, download podcasts, contribute to and view blogs, and bookmark useful Web sites that address specific topics. Disability Listserv Resources provides a gateway to numerous listservs devoted to specific topics. Podfeed is a searchable directory of podcasts. At the American Medical Association Web site, teachers can search for information on specific disabilities and disorders by keyword and browse the latest medical journals. A searchable database, AMA Physician Select, provides information on more than 650,000 physicians in the United States by name or specialty.
Internet-based resources provide educators with a wealth of information for working with students with disabilities.
Another excellent source of information on disabilities is the Web site of the National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities (NICHCY), which provides information on common as well as low-incidence disabilities. At this site teachers also can find links to organizations dealing with disabilities of children and youth.
When teachers are searching for professional articles on various disabilities, a good place to start is the Education Resources Information Center, or ERIC. At this site they can browse through a vast library of short articles on topics for educators across disability areas. This site also includes information on students with disabilities from diverse cultures.
In addition to professional Web sites, teachers can find many resources that are helpful in working with students and their families. Some of our favorite sites are The Beach Center at the University of Kansas and Family Village, a popular site where a family can communicate with others who have common problems and challenges. Visitors can post questions and examine resources. What other professional Web sites would be helpful to new teachers? Share your ideas with your colleagues
Snapshot: Meet Jared
“I’m a ninth-grade student and I have a learning disability. I remember back a few years ago, I didn’t think that I would ever learn to read. It was pretty hard for me because all my friends didn’t seem to have any trouble and I just couldn’t seem to learn. There were these books about a boy named Harry Potter, who was a wizard. Everybody in my school was walking around with a copy of the latest book, and everybody was talking about it. I walked around with a copy of the book too. I didn’t want to be different, but I couldn’t read it.
“That same year, I worked with a new special education teacher who knew a lot about teaching students with learning disabilities. I really wanted to learn to read, and every day I worked with that teacher. He had some neat books that we read, and he even taped some of Harry Potter for me. I still don’t read as well as a lot of people my age but, hey, I know that I have to continue to work hard if I want to continue my education after high school.”
… and His Father
“Raising Jared has been difficult at times. His teachers would call me to talk about some of the problems he was having—like learning how to read. I remember that when I was in school I also had a difficult time with reading. But I hoped that things would be different for Jared. When the school people tested Jared, they found out that he had a learning disability. Now we knew what was causing his problems. The teachers have worked really hard to help him, and I’m so pleased with his progress now. His interest in school has increased, and he’s starting to think about a career.”
After reading this brief snapshot of Jared, how would you describe his skills or special abilities and his special needs? As you learn more about learning disabilities in the following section, consider possible causes of learning disabilities. How would you compare and contrast characteristics that may be unique to Jared with characteristics that are common to students with learning disabilities.
Students with learning disabilities have average to above-average intellectual abilities but experience difficulty in one or more academic areas. According to the federal definition of learning disabilities that is presented in IDEA,
The term disorder is in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not apply to children who have learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; of mental retardation; of emotional disturbance; or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. (Sec. 300.8)
When learning disabilities are not identified early, students may become frustrated and lose interest in achievement. IDEA requires that schools provide early intervention to any child who is experiencing difficulty in learning. This intensive instruction must be monitored carefully, and data on the child’s progress must be recorded to determine if the child responds to scientific, research-based intervention. For example, Taylor—a first grader at Central School—was having difficulty learning to read. After being identified by her classroom teacher, she began the first of a multilevel series of intensive instruction. (This intensive instruction, also often referred to as early intervention, should not be confused with the same term, when used to refer to the services received by infants and toddlers with disabilities under IDEA.) Even with this additional intervention, though, Taylor continued to experience great difficulties, so the Central School multidisciplinary team met to discuss these concerns and a possible learning disability.
Team members follow specific procedures for determining that a child has a learning disability. According to IDEA, each state develops specific criteria for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability. The criteria must use a process of data-driven documentation and research-based intervention. The child’s response to each intervention is carefully monitored and progress, or lack of, is documented. This information is sometimes referred to as
response to intervention (RTI)
. The child’s ability to learn and acquire the necessary skills during the intervention is critical information in determining if the child can respond to instruction or if the child really has a disability and needs more intensive, specialized instruction available under special education services. When the IEP team meets, they consider data that demonstrate that the child received appropriate instruction in the regular education classroom and how the child responded to multilevel interventions. As an alternative to this process, IDEA also permits the use of alternative research-based procedures for determining if a child has a learning disability.
As team members review all this information, they determine if other assessments should be completed. The team is not required to recommend a test of intelligence as part of the assessment process, nor is the team required to show a discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement, which was required until IDEA. Once all the information has been gathered and analyzed, the team uses the evidence to determine if the child has a learning disability.
Some states do not use categorical definitions of eligibility at all but focus on the intensity of services that a student requires. States may also use slightly different criteria to determine eligibility categories than those described in IDEA. Although we will examine the descriptions in IDEA, you may wish to examine the criteria that your individual state’s regulations describe to determine whether a student is eligible for special education services.
Researchers now believe that several factors contribute to learning disabilities. Research findings in neuroscience, the discipline that studies the structure and function of the brain and the central nervous system, continue to expand our knowledge of the medical aspects of learning disabilities, reading disabilities, or
dyslexia
. Because learning disabilities often occur in multiple family members, another line of research has examined genetic factors. A large body of findings presents strong evidence that, for some students, severe reading disabilities are inherited (
Davis et al.,
2001
;
DeFries & Alarcon,
1996
; Pennington,
1995
). Additional lines of research have examined other possible causes, such as childhood illnesses, loss of oxygen due to accidents, or environmental factors such as pollutants.
Neuroscience has produced intriguing findings, leading to renewed interest in cognitive science and its implications for teaching and learning. As a result of some of this resarch we now have a greater understanding of the impact of disability on learning. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), a process that allows the brain to be seen through imaging techniques, indicates anatomical and functional differences between the brains of children with learning disabilities and the brains of children who do not have learning problems (
B. A. Shaywitz, Lyon, & S. E. Shaywitz,
2006
;
B. A. Shaywitz, S. E. Shaywitz, & Blachman,
2004
). To provide a closer look at brain activity during cognitive processes, investigators use electrophysiological and metabolic imaging techniques. These brain maps have identified a number of brain irregularities and inconsistencies in individuals with learning disabilities (
Hynd, Semrud-Clikeman, & Lyytinen,
1991
;
Sousa,
2006a
,
2006b
).
The left hemisphere of the brain contains most of the areas responsible for speech and language processing. B. A. Shaywitz et al. (2006), researchers at the Yale University School of Medicine, have studied the process of reading and the associated areas in the brain. Some of their investigations have focused on how the brain functions when children both with and without disabilities are learning to read. Their findings indicated that there are three specific neural systems on the left hemisphere of the brain for reading. These include an area in the region of Broca’s area, a language area that is believed to serve articulation and word analysis. One posterior area is believed to serve word analysis and the second area, to serve rapid, automatic, and fluent identification of words.
Using functional MRI, these researchers found that there were major differences in activation in the three neural systems between children with dyslexia and children without dyslexia. Their results show that younger children with dyslexia show significantly less activation in the three neural systems than do children without disabilities.
More importantly the work of B. A. Shaywitz et al. (2006) indicates that the neural systems are receptive and can be modified by effective reading intervention. As reading skill increases, brain activation increases. Large-scale studies on young children indicate that using interventions that focus on phonemic awareness and phonics can remediate and may prevent reading difficulties in early elementary children (
S. E. Shaywitz,
2003
;
Torgesen et al.,
1999
).
Less is known about older children with dyslexia and the ability to compensate. B. A. Shaywitz and S. E. Saywitz (
2007
) found that older children with dyslexia appear to compensate with increased activation in another part of the brain, the anterior regions (p. 74). Teachers working with older children and youth with dyslexia can help students compensate by using research-based practices, including the use of semantic or word knowledge, use of context, and increasing verbal ability. Although younger children use phonological skills in learning how to read, old students rely more on semantic knowledge, or word meaning, and their own vocabulary (
B. A. Shaywitz et al., 2006
).
In sum, these findings in brain science have very important educational implications:
• Intervention works! Intensive evidence-based reading instruction with young children improves reading fluency and the development of neural systems that are the foundation for skilled reading.
• To read, a child has to develop knowledge of the sounds that letters and letter combinations make. Instruction must involve phonemic awareness and phonics.
• To be good readers, children must have a good vocabulary and word knowledge. Instruction must include teaching vocabulary words and their meaning(s). (
Shaywitz, Lyon, & Shaywitz, 2006
)
Let us examine some of the early signs of learning disabilities that a teacher might observe in a preschooler. One of the first areas is the child’s speech and use of language. The child’s speech may be garbled and difficult to understand. The child may display problems in using and understanding language and may have difficulty with word retrieval. For example, the child may know that a glass holds milk but may be unable to come up with the word glass when the teacher asks the children to name various objects in a picture. The child may have difficulty in discriminating letters and numbers, confusing the names of letters or numerals.
Some preschool children show difficulties in attention, such as hyperactivity, inattention, or impulsivity. A teacher may observe that the child has difficulty sitting still during circle time or is easily distracted during the reading of a story. Later the child may begin an activity at one center and then go to a second center before completing the first activity.
Preschool children who later are identified as having learning disabilities acquire fine motor skills after other children typically have mastered them. For example, a child may experience difficulty in learning how to dress and use buttons and zippers. Although these skills take time for all children to learn, the child with a learning disability continues to find these tasks frustrating and easily gives up trying. Other fine motor activities such as drawing shapes or writing letters with a pencil, using scissors to cut paper, and completing a puzzle may be difficult and frustrating for the child.
During outside play, a child may display awkwardness in gross motor activities, such as difficulty throwing or catching a large ball. Jumping and hopping, which require a certain degree of coordination, may present problems for a child.
Although educational diagnosticians and other professionals can identify many disabilities in very young children, these professionals usually do not identify children with learning disabilities during the preschool years. There are many reasons for the lack of early identification of a learning disability. Many of the early signs of learning disabilities are also associated with overall developmental delays or lack of opportunity. Thus, educators may have difficulty determining whether a young child’s problems are the result of an actual disability, lack of appropriate early education experiences, or poor environmental conditions. However, these early signs can alert the astute teacher that a child needs intensive early intervention.
Similar to students without disabilities, school-age students with learning disabilities do not fit a single profile. Some students have difficulty with short-term memory tasks, others have accompanying attention problems, and still others have difficulties in activities involving motor skills. The one common denominator, though, is an academic achievement problem in literacy, including reading and writing, language use, or mathematics.
Because students with learning disabilities exhibit a broad range of academic achievement problems, special education teachers must identify and plan appropriate educational programs for a diverse group of students. Students typically show uneven patterns of academic performance. Some students have problems in just one area of achievement, whereas others have difficulty in several areas. Within an academic area, students may have some knowledge, but other relevant knowledge, typical of most students at that grade level, is missing.
The achievement of students with learning disabilities may not be accurately reflected in standardized test scores. In fact, students with learning disabilities often receive low scores on standardized tests. As with students without disabilities, skills, knowledge, and achievement can be represented in a variety of other ways, such as performance-based assessment and portfolios, assessment approaches that we discuss in
Chapter 5
.
One of the most difficult areas for many students with learning disabilities is learning how to read and to comprehend what has been read. In fact, about 80% of students with learning disabilities have a disability in reading (
President’s Commission on Excellence in Special Education,
2002
). Teachers can identify early signs of learning disabilities by observing problems in phonological awareness in the early grades.
Phonological awareness
involves understanding and identifying the individual sounds that make up a word. For example, a kindergarten teacher might ask the children, “Who can tell me the sound you hear at the beginning of the word bat?” Children who have not developed phonological awareness cannot identify the separate sounds, or
phonemes
, of words (
Torgesen,
1998
). Long after other students in the class have learned sound-symbol relationships, students who have learning disabilities may continue to have difficulty remembering the sounds that go with individual letters and how to blend sounds to make whole words.
Older students who have mastered decoding, the reading of printed text, may not develop fluency in reading. When asked to read text at their grade level, students may show two obvious difficulties (
Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007
). First, they may not be able to read many of the words in the text. They may guess or attempt to sound out these words. Second, they may make numerous mistakes because of difficulty in using letter-sound relationships to identify unknown words. Students may not realize their mistakes, adding to the confusion. In addition, students may have difficulty recognizing words quickly or reading longer passages in a manner that permits understanding the material and making connections. In other words, students can read the words but have difficulty answering questions, identifying key concepts, or summarizing and interpreting the main points of the text.
Some students with learning disabilities may demonstrate difficulty in computing mathematics, understanding word problems, or using problem-solving strategies. Students may confuse place value in computation or make consistent errors in combining sets. Word problems create difficulties not only in reading and understanding the problem but also in knowing how to proceed with problem solving. Students must be able to (a) recognize what the problem is asking, (b) decide on the appropriate strategy, (c) remember all the steps in carrying out the strategy, and (d) complete the operation correctly. Students with learning disabilities may have difficulties with each step along the way.
The content of written language and the mechanics of writing, including spelling, grammar, and punctuation, may be affected by a learning disability. Many children with learning disabilities labor over writing tasks, barely having a few words down when other students are finishing their first drafts. Their handwriting is often illegible. Their fine motor difficulties could have been observed during the early years, perhaps when they tried to use markers and crayons or were learning how to print.
Spelling may present special challenges, especially for students who cannot recognize sound-symbol relationships. They may have few sight words, or words that they can read without sounding out and can spell quickly. Other students may produce written text that lacks organization. They may use incorrect grammatical structures and incorrect word meanings but have wonderful, creative ideas.
Oral language can be thought of as encompassing three areas. First,
expressive language
is the language used to communicate with others. Second,
receptive language
refers to understanding the language of others. Finally,
inner language
involves the use of language during thinking, planning, organizing, or other thought processes. Students with learning disabilities frequently exhibit impairments in one or more of these areas.
Oral language may be difficult for some students to interpret. Students with auditory processing difficulties can hear what the teacher says but have difficulty understanding. For example, a teacher provides an overview of what the students will be doing during social studies class: “Today we are going to continue our exploration of what it was like to live in the 1700s. Some of you may choose to work in a group that focuses on city life; others may select a group that focuses on living in a rural farming community.” A student with an auditory processing problem may miss all or parts of the introduction and may not realize that the task is to work in a group with other students.
An educator designs instructions so that a student with a learning disability experiences success.
In the classroom, teachers observe
• difficulty in understanding verbal explanations or discussions;
• misinterpretation of a fast-paced group conversation; and
• difficulty in maintaining concentration in an environment that is over-stimulating.
Understanding and using spoken language, often referred to as pragmatics, provides individuals with the skills to engage in the give and take of everyday conversation.
Pragmatics
includes three areas: (a) using language to achieve communicative goals, (b) using information from contextual clues (such as bringing the topic to a close when the listener uses body language to show lack of interest), and (c) knowing how to use conversational skills (
Lahey, 1988
). Learning to be a careful listener and to check for understanding prevents miscommunication. Knowing when to add a comment to encourage further conversation, when to change the subject, or when to stop talking are skills necessary for building and maintaining friendships and being successful in many types of jobs. Students with learning disabilities may not keep the conversation going or may make irrelevant comments. Their IEPs will include goals to increase skills in understanding and using conversational language.
Students with learning disabilities frequently have difficulty with tasks and assignments in the content areas. For example, a middle school science book uses the following new vocabulary words in a chapter on astronomy: axis, revolution, galaxies, asteroids, pulsars, and satellites. Although the teacher introduces the new words to all students, a student with a learning disability may not be able to remember them when he or she sees them again. In addition, a student may lack the reading skills that other students have developed to figure out the new word. Students may be asked to draw on other skills, too. In this science unit, they are asked to compare and contrast distances and the time required to travel those distances on Earth. Students will need to draw on mathematical understandings and mathematical skills to complete unit assignments.
When teachers use original source materials in the content areas to heighten student interest and motivation, students with learning disabilities may have difficulties. For example, a social studies teacher wants to help students deepen their understanding of the American Civil War. The teacher locates a number of rich Web resources, including a diary written by an individual who lived during the mid-1800s, maps, photographs, and other original documents. Although the information is fascinating, the reading is difficult because none of the text is controlled for vocabulary and contains a number of new words and unfamiliar concepts.
Students with learning disabilities may have difficulty completing assignments. Because a learning disability can affect a student’s abilities in written language, an assignment that requires a student to produce a written or oral report presents challenges beyond planning and gathering information for the report. A student may experience difficulties in organizing and synthesizing information. The learning disability may affect language and memory skills, such as word retrieval and thought processes, in writing or in giving the oral report. Special educators design specialized instruction, and other members of the IEP team provide services so that the student can be successful and achieve in the classroom while maintaining high expectations. In later chapters of this book, we discuss how special educators use teaching methods, instructional strategies, and technology to help students become successful learners.
Motor skills and coordination of large and small muscles present difficulties to some students. Some students with learning disabilities may appear clumsy and awkward and experience difficulty in coordination that hinders them in playing team sports, whereas others may be active team players. Physical therapists refer to these difficulties as gross motor problems and work with students to improve their skills. Students with small muscle problems or fine motor difficulties often work with occupational therapists. For example, Ti and Gerri both have learning disabilities. Ti, a fifth grader, has gross motor problems—difficulty in catching and throwing a ball on the playground and problems with coordination during physical activities. Gerri, a first grader, experiences difficulty with fine motor skills, such as starting the zipper on her jacket and learning to write letters. Their teachers regularly confer with the therapists to discuss progress and obtain suggestions for transferring therapeutic interventions to the classroom.
People hold many different types of memories. For example, they can recall melodies of favorite songs or the look on a friend’s face when seeing him or her after a long absence. During various types of learning and recall activities, researchers have been able to view and study the brain through positron emission tomography scans and functional MRIs. After extended work, they believe that they have been able to identify specific brain areas where different types of memories are labeled (
Sprenger, 1999
).
According to Sousa (2006a), there is evidence that because experiences usually comprise several aspects, the brain stores them in more than one area for later retrieval. “Which sites to select for storage could be determined by the number of associations that the brain makes between the new learning and past learnings. The more connections that are made, the more understanding and meaning the learner can attach to the new learning, and the more likely it is that it will be stored in different networks. This process now gives the learner multiple opportunities to retrieve the new learning” (p. 79).
There are three different stages of memory: immediate, working, and long-term memory (
Sousa, 2006a
). Whereas immediate memory is temporary, working memory can last for hours and allows one to retain relevant information while completing a task. Students with learning disabilities frequently have difficulty with working memory. For example, Taylor begins to write a short story but, while pausing to look up the spelling of a word, forgets what she had planned to say.
Much more remains to be learned about the role of various areas of the brain, how they work together, and how various types of experiences are stored and later retrieved. Students with learning disabilities frequently have difficulty learning and retaining certain types of information. As research in neuroscience continues to inform our practice, educators will be able to apply this information to understanding more about learning disabilities and enhancing teaching and learning opportunities in the classroom.
Keeping track of classes, assignments, extracurricular activities, part-time work schedules, and obligations at home and in the community requires good organizational skills. Students who have difficulty with organization frequently
• misplace assignments;
• cannot locate materials such as a textbook, pencil, or flash drive;
• do not allow enough time to complete an assignment; and
• do not know when assignments are due.
Teachers can help students develop organizational strategies by showing them, for example, how to prioritize their work or keep a schedule planner. In
Chapter 16
we examine additional ways teachers help students develop good organizational skills.
Students with learning disabilities frequently have compounding behavioral problems. These problems may be the result of experiencing frustrating academic work; difficulty in understanding and interpreting information; misplacing materials, assignments, and books; or misinterpreting social situations and conversations. For example, teachers observe students
• acting out;
• being physically and/or verbally aggressive toward others;
• being disrespectful; or
• lacking motivation.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
English Language Learners and Learning Disabilities
Sometimes educators wonder if the classroom difficulties an English language learner is experiencing are related to learning a new language or to a disability. Which characteristics alert educators to consider the possibility of a disability when a student is learning English as a second language? Let us take a closer look at some useful suggestions.
According to Roseberry-McKibbin (1995), an educator may observe that the student uses nonverbal aspects of language that are culturally inappropriate or does not express basic needs adequately. The student may rarely initiate verbal interaction with peers or may respond sporadically or inappropriately when peers initiate interaction. Sometimes the student replaces speech with gestures, communicating nonverbally when talking would be appropriate and expected.
The student may experience difficulty in conveying thoughts in an organized, sequential manner that is understandable to listeners. For example, the student may skip from one topic to the next or have word-finding difficulties that go beyond typical second-language-acquisition patterns. The student may fail to provide significant information, leaving the listener confused, or may have difficulty with conversational turn-taking skills. The student may perseverate on a topic even after the topic has changed, may fail to ask and answer questions appropriately, or may need to hear things repeated even when they are stated simply (
Roseberry-McKibbin, 1995
).
Barrera (2006) wondered if there were specific features of student work that could help educators determine if a student who was learning English as a second language also had learning problems. This researcher worked with 38 general and special educators who examined 114 student work samples. The work samples were completed by high school students from three different groups: (a) second-language learners identified as having learning disabilities, (b) second-language learners who were not in special education, and (c) students who were considered typically achieving to high achieving bilingual or English proficient students.
The work samples consisted of journals kept by the students as they learned content-area vocabulary. Students were taught to write notes as they learned new vocabulary terms and to write their own vocabulary definitions. They also were asked to write two sentences for each new term.
The research findings indicated that the teachers correctly rated the student work samples according to the previously hypothesized patterns, with English-proficient-bilingual students rated highest; next were students who were second-language learners, and third were second-language learners identified as having learning disabilities. However, many direct comparisons between these groups were not clear. For example, the researchers found that students who also were identified as having learning disabilities not only wrote down fewer keywords but were provided with fewer words during instructional time. Thus, “…one factor in limited growth in language and vocabulary development is either the limited exposure to opportunities for building vocabulary or that slower rate of vocabulary acquisition by individuals with difficulties that span both academic content and language learning” (
Barrera, 2006
, p. 153). No students should be shortchanged in terms of academic expectations.
In meeting the needs of students, many of whom may be newcomers to this country, educators learn to observe individual student characteristics. When the teacher has concerns, the parents should be invited and encouraged to come to school so that the concerns can be discussed. Finally, when concerns persist, the student should be referred to the multidisciplinary team to determine whether the student has a disability. If so, the student should receive appropriate specialized instruction through special education services.
Questions for Reflection
1. What additional information is helpful for educators to know about students who are English language learners?
2. Can you identify several Web-based resources concerning characteristics of various disabilities that are available in languages other than English?
Teachers often refer to students with learning disabilities as having a short attention span or being overactive. These characteristics actually comprise another disability, ADHD, which is sometimes associated with a learning disability. A student who has characteristics only of inattentiveness or hyperactivity does not necessarily have a learning disability. Later in this chapter, we look more closely at ADHD.
Professional Web sites help educators, other professionals, parents, and students find out more about learning disabilities. A good place to begin is with the Division for Learning Disabilities, one of the divisions of the professional organization for special educators, the Council for Exceptional Children. The Division for Learning Disabilities Web site focuses on information and resources for teaching students with learning disabilities. Along with obtaining resources for understanding learning disabilities and teaching tips, educators can join discussion groups with colleagues and experts.
Another good resource, the International Dyslexia Association, maintains a Web site that includes a wealth of information for educators and individuals with learning disabilities, including sections for children, college students, adults, and parents. This site provides an option to customize the display of information by changing the font type and font size. Incidentally, the International Dyslexia Association is one of the oldest and best-known organizations in the field of learning disabilities in this country.
There are a number of other national organizations, such as the Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA), which maintains affiliates in each state. On the LDA Web site, users can link to the Web site of every state affiliate to discover regional activities, information, and resources. The National Center for Learning Disabilities provides a variety of helpful information, and visitors can download free software if they choose to listen to the information rather than reading it.
IN PRACTICE
IDEA requires specific procedures for identifying students with learning disabilities. Long before a teacher makes a referral to the IEP team, there must be documented efforts that the student has received scientific, research-based instruction. When a child does not make progress in the regular classroom, the school provides a program of more intensive instruction that has a research base with evidence that it is effective. This intensive instruction is generally implemented in small groups of students or individual tutorials with a trained professional such as a reading teacher. Educators keep data on student progress at each of these progressively, more intense levels of instruction. When a child does not respond to intensive interventions, the child is referred to the IEP team. All the information concerning the interventions tried and the student data regarding lack of progress will be presented to the IEP team.
Classroom Focus
In preparation for the IEP team meeting, special educator Mitzi Chan reviewed Taylor Jackson’s student file. Taylor, a third-grade student, was continuing to experience difficulty in learning how to read. Mitzi first checked her attendance record and found that Taylor had been absent frequently over the past year. Next she looked to see if there were records of vision and hearing tests. Mitzi also talked with the reading specialist who had been providing small-group instruction. She listened carefully as the reading specialist described her observations of Taylor’s work. “It’s been so difficult to keep her attention. She interrupts when the other children are reading and has difficulty even sitting still. When Taylor reads, she still has difficulty with initial blends such as ‘sh’ and ‘ch.’”
Working Toward Solutions
The IEP team meeting was scheduled, and Ms. Jackson (Taylor’s mother), teachers, the school principal, the school nurse, and the school psychological examiner attended. The school principal facilitated the meeting, welcoming each person. She asked the general education teacher to talk about Taylor’s work in the classroom. The reading specialist spoke next to discuss the different types of instruction she had provided. Next, Ms. Jackson talked about how she felt her daughter was progressing, “Frankly, I’ve been concerned. I know that she is falling behind, and I’d like her to get more help. When her older brothers were in school, they had some very difficult times. We don’t want Taylor to experience the same problems.”
The school nurse brought up the number of absences that were noted in her school file and Ms. Jackson explained, “I took on a second job in September and her grandmother helps me during the week. When Taylor misses the bus, her grandmother does not have a way to get her to school.”
Mitzi asked if Taylor had received a recent vision and hearing test. Ms. Jackson could not remember if she had, and there was no record in her file. The school nurse volunteered to schedule these screenings.
Determining if Taylor has a learning disability is a carefully documented process. The team listened carefully to the classroom teacher and the reading specialist’s descriptions of the various interventions tried and the data that they had collected on Taylor’s continuing difficulties. The information that the parent shared helped explain her absences. What effect did irregular attendance have on the carefully planned interventions? Why did the special educator ask about Taylor’s vision and hearing? How might these screenings impact on Taylor’s learning and, later, the team’s decision?
At this team meeting, team members shared a lot of information. However, before an educational diagnosis can be made, the team will need to review additional information that was requested at the meeting, synthesize all the information, and analyze the data. Determining a learning disability and eligibility for special education services is a carefully documented process.
What the Research Says
One research team (
Al Otaiba & Fuchs, 2006
) was interested in identifying student characteristics that would predict if children would respond or not respond to early literacy interventions. They hoped that if they could identify specific characteristics on a reliable basis they might be able to help those children who do not respond. The study involved studying 312 kindergarten and first-grade children. Children were divided into four groups, which included (a) 2 years of intervention, (b) only 1 year of intervention in kindergarten, (c) only 1 year of intervention in first grade, and (d) typical classroom instruction in both years (control group).
Classroom teachers were trained to deliver the intervention within the regular classroom as part of reading instruction. This instruction was explicit and systematic. In other words, the instruction was teacher-directed and specific to developing skills. Teachers taught phonological awareness activities in 5- to 15-minute sessions three times per week for 20 weeks. They also used phonological awareness and phonemic decoding practice three times per week for 16 weeks. These interventions came from Ladders to Literacy (
O’Connor, Notari-Syverson, & Vadaoy,
2005
) and Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies PALS-K for kindergarden, and first- to third-grade PALS (
Invernizzo, Juel, Swank, & Meir, 2003–2007
;
Invernizzo, Meir, & Juel, 2003–2007
). In addition, the teachers used the typical classroom reading instruction. This instruction also consisted of phonological awareness and phonics but, in contrast to the intervention, was implicit or embedded in reading activities.
The findings highly supported the children who participated in the intervention groups, even for 1 year. Of the 227 students who were in one of the intervention groups (kindergarten only, first grade only, or both kindergarten and first grade) only 7.05% of the children did not respond by the end of the intervention period. A much higher percent (25.35%) of the 71 students in the control group did not respond.
The researchers concluded that PALS-K, PALS1–3, and Ladder to Literacy are not only effective beginning reading programs but can be implemented in the regular classroom. Additionally, the researchers reiterated an early warning by Vellutino et al. (1996). They cautioned that many young children with apparent reading disabilities are children who really only need competent instruction.
The researchers also examined the characteristics of children who did not respond to the intensive intervention program. These children scored lower on vocabulary and rapid naming, such as naming letter sounds. Furthermore, they demonstrated more problem behaviors. In fact, problem behaviors greatly interfered with instruction and children’s progress. Moreover, inattention and conduct problems were observed, even during one-to-one tutorials. “The distractibility or conduct problems of some (children) are so severe that much of the tutoring time is lost to behavior management” (p. 427). The authors concluded that these children, who may be identified as having learning disabilities, need carefully designed specialized instruction as part of their special education services. They suggested that their reading instruction may need to be combined with behavior-modification or self-regulation activities.
MyEducationlab: Your Turn
Begin by learning more about students with learning disabilities. What characteristics of learning disabilities might you observe in students within the classroom? What are some effective classroom practices? Go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Learning Disabilities. Then select at least two different videos to view, and answer the accompanying questions. As a future teacher, how might you use research findings on brain-based research? To learn more about this topic, read the article entitled “Reading Disability and the Brain” in the topic Learning Disabilities and answer the accompanying questions. Be prepared to share your ideas with classmates.
LDOnline is an extensive Web site with excellent discussions of the IEP, IEP team meetings, instructional strategies, articles, and research related to learning disabilities. A favorite section for children with learning disabilities is the Especially for…Kids. Which sites do you think would be most helpful to first-year teachers? What additional professional resources on learning disabilities can you find?
Snapshot: Meet Dave
“Hey! My name is Dave and I’m in fifth grade. I like my teachers a lot this year. I mean, I feel like they really understand me. I can get up and go over to the learning center whenever I need to. Last year the teacher made me sit at my desk all the time, and that was so hard. I mean, can you imagine having to sit in one place when you feel like getting up—and the more you try to sit, the worse you feel? She got really mad at me sometimes, and I didn’t know why. Well, I have ADHD, and last year I had to do a lot of tests and then they found out what was the matter. Sometimes I work with a special teacher, Mrs. Young, in another room, but mostly I just stay here in my classroom. I really like the cool way we do things this year—like learning to solve geometry problems. We have a lot of blocks and cubes that we can use, and each person sets up the problem. I’m learning a lot, and I think I’m getting really good with volume and area and stuff like this.”
… and His Mother
“As a little boy he never seemed to sit still for long, and this was difficult to manage here at home. Later, when he started school and began riding home on the bus, he started having problems. He was always getting into trouble on the bus. I know that ride is difficult after being in school all day. In the beginning he was always jumping up and moving about—and the bus driver would get so mad. Today, he still gets into trouble on that bus. Like the other day, he started throwing somebody’s hat and got a lot of other kids to join in on the game. A whole bunch of them got in trouble. He just doesn’t think things out sometimes. I mean the other kids are really mad at him now, and he doesn’t understand why.
“Dave keeps me on my toes. I mean, he tries to be good but he’s just got so much energy. We’ve tried to get him involved with sports, hoping that this might help. The first year he played soccer and ice hockey—and he’s stuck with it. In fact, this year he is looking forward to playing on the travel team.”
After reading this brief snapshot of Dave, how would you describe his strengths and special needs? As you read the following section, consider the causes of ADHD. What characteristics are typical of students with ADHD and what characteristics were typical of Dave? If you were Dave’s teacher, what additional information would you want to know?
Students both with and without disabilities have difficulty paying attention, at times, but for students with ADHD, this behavior is a regular occurrence. ADHD is characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention that is more frequent and severe than is typically observed in children and youth at comparable levels of development (
American Psychiatric Association [APA],
2000
, p. 85). Children and youth who are identified as having ADHD can receive special education services under IDEA, even though there is no separate category for this disorder. These students fall under the category “other health impairment.” ADHD will also come up when we discuss students with other health impairments later in this chapter.
Because IDEA does not define a separate disability category for ADHD, we will include the criteria described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR;
APA, 2000
) that psychologists use in identifying a child with ADHD:
A. Either (1) or (2):
1. six (or more) of the following symptoms of inattention have persisted for at least 6 months to a degree that is maladaptive and inconsistent with developmental level:
Inattention
a. often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, work, or other activities
b. often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities
c. often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly
d. often does not follow through on instruction and fails to finish school-work, chores, or duties in the workplace (not due to oppositional behavior or failure to understand instructions)
e. often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities
f. often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require sustained mental effort (such as schoolwork or homework)
g. often loses things necessary for tasks or activities (e.g., toys, school assignments, pencils, books, or tools)
h. is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli
i. is often forgetful in daily activities
2. six (or more) of the following symptoms of
hyperactivity
and
impulsivity
have persisted for at least 6 months to a degree that is maladaptive and inconsistent with developmental level:
Hyperactivity
a. often fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat
b. often leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which remaining seated is expected
c. often runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is inappropriate (in adolescents or adults, may be limited to subjective feelings of restlessness)
d. often has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly
e. is often “on the go” or often acts as if “driven by a motor”
f. often talks excessively
Impulsivity
g. often blurts out answers before questions have been completed
h. often has difficulty awaiting turn
i. often interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g., butts into conversations or games)
B. Some hyperactivity-impulsive or inattentive symptoms that caused impairment were present before age 7 years.
C. Some impairment from the symptoms is present in two or more settings (e.g., at school [or work] and at home).
D. There must be clear evidence of clinically significant impairment in social, academic, or occupational functioning.
E. The symptoms do not occur exclusively during the course of a pervasive Developmental Disorder, Schizophrenia, or other Psychotic Disorder and are not better accounted for by another mental disorder (e.g., Mood Disorder, Anxiety Disorder, Dissociative Disorder, or a Personality Disorder)
*
(pp. 83–85).
ADHD occurs in approximately 3% to 8% of American students, and boys are twice as likely to have it as girls (
Barkley, 2003
). ADHD frequently persists into adulthood. Several lines of research are investigating the cause(s) of ADHD. Investigators working in the area of heredity have found that a student with ADHD often has one or more relatives with the same characteristics. Studies of families indicate that there is a two- to eight-fold increase in the risk for ADHD when parents or siblings have ADHD (
Banerjee, Middleton, Faraone, 2007
). In addition to heredity, there may be other biological and environmental factors that contribute to ADHD. Some of these factors include food additives/diet, lead contamination, cigarette and alcohol exposure, maternal smoking during pregnancy, and low birth weight (Banerjee et al.)
For students with ADHD, brain-based research continues to increase our understanding of anatomical differences and imbalances in the brain and how neurological dysfunction affects their ability to learn and attend. Using high-resolution MRI, researchers have found differences in the areas of the brain linked to attention and impulse control in children with ADHD. In a comparison of the MRI scans of children and adolescents with and without ADHD, researchers found that children with ADHD had changes in brain structure in regions controlling attention and impulses (
Stein, 2007
).
*Reprinted with permission from The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Text Revision, pp. 83–85, Copyright © 2000, American Psychiatric Association.
Although students with ADHD exhibit difficulties primarily in attention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, they may also have co-occurring problems. Frequently, students with ADHD also have learning disabilities. Other students with ADHD are diagnosed with oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, depression, and other mood problems, anxiety problems, and tics (
Kollins, Barkley, & Dupaul, 2001
). Although American educators frequently observe characteristics of ADHD, this disorder also occurs in other parts of the world. However, the prevalence of ADHD in other countries varies, probably due to different diagnostic practices (APA, 2000).
Observing and recognizing early signs of ADHD in young children requires a solid knowledge and understanding of child development. Young children who are developing typically show limitless energy. Yet, by the time children are 3 years of age, they enjoy sitting and engaging in tabletop activities or listening to a story. Unlike their peers, young children with ADHD have difficulty sitting still long enough to play with play dough or markers or to maintain attention to a short story. According to DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000), parents may observe excessive motor activity in children as young as toddlers. Later these children may be identified as having ADHD.
Usually ADHD is identified once children enter school. In the classroom, teachers expect children to follow rules such as “inside voices” and “walking feet.” As the classroom routine becomes more structured, educators often identify children who are having difficulty managing their bodies and attending to the teacher’s directions and expectations.
Hyperactivity and inattention affect students’ achievement across the curriculum. These academic difficulties stem from a poor attention span; from inability to sit still, follow directions, and complete tasks; and from impulsive behavior. For example, similar to students with learning disabilities, students with ADHD may have difficulty in learning how to read and, as they become older, in comprehending what they are reading. In using written language, students with ADHD often are distracted and forget what they set out to write once they begin writing. Searching the Internet to conduct research in specific content areas may result in exploration of an interesting but very different topic from the one they began.
Attention, Hyperactivity, and Impulsivity. Children with attention problems are easily distracted. General classroom noise, a student passing nearby, or remembering the lyrics of a favorite song may quickly and unexpectedly draw the student’s attention away from the teacher who is providing instruction. Once the student has identified the source of the noise or the other distraction, this inattention has prevented the student from receiving important information from the teacher. Missing one or more of the instructional steps that the teacher was explaining prevents the student from understanding the directions or expectations of the assignment.
Another behavior problem associated with ADHD is hyperactivity. The types of hyperactivity usually vary, depending on the age of the student. In the early grades, much of the hyperactivity consists of gross motor activity, such as running, jumping, and climbing; as the child becomes older, the hyperactivity behaviors become more subtle, consisting of fidgeting, pacing, or general restlessness (APA, 2000). Older students may have difficulty concentrating, may be easily distracted, and may have difficulty staying in one place.
In the classroom these behaviors may include the following
• Getting up every few minutes to sharpen a pencil or get a drink of water
• Not completing an activity
• Talking to others rather than listening when someone else is talking
• Not following directions
Impulsivity is another behavioral characteristic of ADHD. Being impulsive may mean acting without thinking or saying the first thing that comes to mind. Impulsive behaviors cause many difficulties, including taking risks that could result in physical harm for the student as well as for others. Impulsive behaviors often interfere with relationships and create social problems with peers. Children with ADHD have more difficulty in identifying the emotions of others than do children without ADHD (
Novilitus, Cases, Brookier, & Bonello, 2000
). Further, impulsive behaviors prevent a student from maintaining high academic achievement in the classroom.
ADHD is not a condition that can be cured; rather, a student must learn how to live with and manage it. A large body of research indicates that three general approaches to treating ADHD have received the most attention: pharmacological approaches, behavioral/psychosocial approaches, and a combination of the two (
Kollins et al., 2001
).
Many students with ADHD receive medication to improve their attention and decrease problem behaviors. The commonly held view is that individuals with ADHD, even though they are generally overactive, have an inactive area in the brain, the prefrontal cortex. This part of the brain is responsible for sorting out and organizing information coming from within the body and the environment. Part of the work of the prefrontal cortex is to inhibit those impulses that are not useful. For individuals with ADHD, the inactivity in this area results in a flood of information, which results in difficulty in focusing and attending to important information.
Thus, even though many students with ADHD are overactive, a stimulant medication helps the prefrontal cortex to work more effectively. The most common medications, known as psychostimulant medications, work by increasing the production of chemical neurotransmitters, the chemicals in the brain responsible for transmitting messages from one cell to the next. The most common of these medications include Ritalin, Dexedrine, Cylert, Adderall, and Concerta. Some of these medications, such as Ritalin and Dexedrine, are fast working and show effects in about 30 minutes. They continue to be effective for 3 to 5 hours. Other medication, such as Cylert, takes several weeks to be effective but maintains longer-lasting results. Generally, these medications are associated with rapid improvement in attention, behavior, and academic performance; however, psychostimulant medications may have adverse effects, such as insomnia and loss of appetite.
Another medication that may be prescribed is Stratta, a newer medication that is a nonstimulant and is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of ADHD in children, adolescents, and adults. Stratta elevates neurotransmitters by inhibiting the chemical from being absorded by individiual neurons, thus weakening its effects. Several weeks may pass after beginning treatment before there is an improvement in attention and behavior. An individual needs to take this medication only once daily. Like other medications, there may be side effects, including mood or behavior changes, becoming irritable or anxious, or having thoughts of suicide.
Behavioral
and Psychosocial Approaches
Teachers use behavioral and psychosocial approaches in the classroom to address these areas of concern: increasing attention, managing impulsivity, and reducing hyperactivity. According to Learner and Kline (2006) increasing attention involves the following:
1. Coming to Attention: The student is alert and motivated for the lesson.
2. Focusing Attention: The student must learn to focus attention, to slow down, to become more deliberate and reflective, and to monitor responses before answering.
3. Sustaining Attention: The student must concentrate for an extended period of time to receive the information and to complete the learning activities. (pp. 208–209)
In the chapters that follow, we discuss many different strategies that educators use to teach students how to improve student attention. We also explore methods and strategies for addressing impulsivity and hyperactivity.
Frequently educators and other members of the IEP team use multimodel treatment plans for working with students with ADHD. Because a student with ADHD often has co-existing disabilities, such as a learning disability, his or her IEP will include academic goals. The plan may also include specialized instruction in improving social skills or a behavior support plan to manage impulsivity and hyperactivity. Team members will need to plan how they will work together when a student needs to change medication. Educators and parents will decide the best way to monitor and communicate any behavioral changes in the classroom. This information will be helpful to the family who, in turn, can share the observations with the child’s physician.
With supportive educational interventions, a student can use his or her high activity and energy level to advantage, resulting in positive outcomes. A student’s curiosity, divergent thinking, and risk taking can result in inventive solutions and the ability to manage multitasking and complex operations. These characteristics can lead to creative ideas and outcomes.
The Internet has much more information about ADHD. The Web site of the National Institute of Mental Health is a good place to start. This site provides a broad range of information about ADHD for the public as well as for professionals.
The Web site of one of the most well known organizations on ADHD, Children and Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD), provides research-based information about ADHD and serves as a focal point for education, research, leadership, advocacy, and support. Its Web site provides both print and Web-based materials.
The National Institute of Mental Health also contains a wealth of information about ADHD, including detailed information concerning symptoms and interventions, for children, teenagers, and adults. This site also provides articles and free documents to download.
Snapshot: Meet Amanda
“My name is Amanda, and I am in kindergarten. Sometimes I have trouble breathing. When it gets bad, my daddy says I am having an asthma attack. This is very scary and I don’t like it. One time my daddy had to take me to the hospital. I don’t remember that, but he does. He says he was very scared too. When I have an asthma attack, I have to use my inhaler and then I feel better.”
… and Her Mother
“Our daughter, Amanda, has asthma. She experiences shortness of breath and has trouble breathing, like she can’t get all the air out of her lungs. The doctor says that her triggers are colds, allergies, certain weeds, perfumes and hairspray, and smoke. Once we were walking through the perfume section of a department store, and she had such a bad reaction that she almost stopped breathing. I got her out of that store fast. Now we always walk on the other side of the mall to avoid passing by that store. Recently, we learned that there are several early warning signs; one of them is a feeling of tightness in the chest.
“I think that it is important to know what an attack can feel like and what are some of the best things one can do for someone during an attack. During her attacks, Amanda can’t catch her breath. It is the sort of feeling that you get when you have run too much and are out of breath. We find that during an attack, the best thing someone can do for her is stay calm, get her a glass of water for her coughing, and talk to her. The person should make sure that she uses her inhaler. The inhaler dispenses medication in a mist that she breathes in, relieving some of the airway obstruction. Having an attack is scary because the person has no control of the situation. After an asthma attack, she often has an increased appetite and experiences a rapid heartbeat. She may shake for hours and get very ‘hyper,’ followed by extreme fatigue” (adapted from
A. Cooke, personal communication, 2000
).
After reading this brief snapshot of Amanda, what strengths and needs can you identify? In the following section, you will read about asthma as will as other health impairments. What causes asthma? What characteristics are typical of students with other health impairments and how do those compare with what you know about Amanda? If you were Amanda’s teacher, what additional information would you want to have?
Sometimes students have disabilities that are considered under a broad category called other health impairments (
Table 2.1
). These impairments are often associated with a medical condition that may be either acute (short-lived) or chronic (long-lasting). Students with chronic health impairments, such as hemophilia or cancer, may be too sick for periods of time to participate in an education program. These impairments impact not only on the student’s health, physical strength, and stamina but also on the student’s attitude and emotional well-being.
IDEA identifies a sample of medical conditions that fall under this term:
Other health impairment
means having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the education environment that (1) is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and Tourette syndrome; and (2) adversely affects a child’s educational performance. (Sec. 300.8)
Other health impairments include a wide variety of conditions that may be traced to prenatal causes (conditions during pregnancy); perinatal causes (conditions that occur during the baby’s birth); postnatal causes (conditions that occur in the first months of life); or environmental causes during the early years. For some medical conditions, the causes may be unknown. In addition to ADHD, which we discussed previously, two of the most common health impairments in children and youth are asthma and diabetes.
Asthma
is one of the most common pulmonary disorders among children, with an incidence rate that is rapidly growing. Although the exact cause of asthma is not known, medical professionals believe that a primary triggering event leads to inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes, causing the tubes to narrow. This narrowing of the airway makes it difficult to move air in and out of the lungs, resulting in wheezing and coughing. There may be a genetic factor; the child inherits the tendency for inflammation of the lung airway, which then triggers bronchial muscle hyperreactivity (
Shouldice, 2004
).
Allergens
, or conditions that cause the inflammation of the airway lining, may be either inhaled or ingested. For example, some people are affected only when they come in contact with certain environmental allergens such as cats and dogs or pollen from grasses, trees, and weeds. Sometimes asthma is exacerbated by cold air or environmental pollutants. For some students, physical exercise in class or participation in a sports activity can be a triggering event. Others may experience a strong reaction to nuts or milk. Teachers use knowledge of a child’s triggers in considering the classroom environment and in planning learning activities. For example, if a child is not able to tolerate tree pollen, a teacher will arrange a class field trip before or after the time when the pollen is most prevalent.
Table 2.1 Examples of Disabilities Considered under Other Health Impairments and Their Characteristics
|
Disability |
Description |
Characteristics |
||||||||
| Asthma |
Inflammation of the bronchial tubes |
Coughing and wheezing; decreased ability to run or jump; difficulty completing work or attending to tasks |
||||||||
| ADHD |
A disorder that affects an individual’s behavior |
Inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity |
||||||||
|
Diabetes, type I |
A chronic disorder that results from lack of insulin |
Faintness, headache, excessive hunger, nervousness, increased heart rate, cold hands and feet |
||||||||
|
Diabetes, type II |
A chronic disorder that results from obesity and the decrease in the body’s sensitivity to insulin |
Leads to a wide variety of long-term complications, including heart disease |
||||||||
|
Epilepsy |
Discharge of abnormal electrical activity to one or more areas of the brain |
Twitching of a body part, flushing, vomiting, olfactory hallucinations, a feeling of fear. In generalized seizures, consciousness is lost |
||||||||
|
Hemophilia |
A group of lifelong bleeding disorders |
Fatigue, severe bleeding episodes |
||||||||
|
Lead poisoning |
Caused by repeated inhalation, ingestion, or absorption through the skin of lead or lead compounds |
Anemia, distractibility, hyperactivity, hyperirritability, impulsiveness, lethargy, listlessness |
||||||||
|
Leukemia |
A malignant disease of the blood-making (hematopoietic) system of the body |
Anemia, susceptibility to infection, bruising of the skin, often without any noticeable cause, increased incidence of nosebleeds |
||||||||
|
Nephritis |
Inflammation of the kidney associated with infection |
Decreased ability of the kidneys to remove waste efficiently |
||||||||
|
Rheumatic fever |
Inflammatory disease that develops after an infection and can involve the heart, brain, joints, or skin |
Fever, joint pain or swelling, skin rash, or cardiac problems such as shortness of breath or chest pain |
||||||||
|
Sickle cell anemia |
Abnormal shape of red blood cells, which decreases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood |
Anemia and decreased ability to participate in physical activity during a sickle cell crisis; periods of intense pain |
||||||||
|
Tourette Syndrome |
A neurological disorder characterized by repetitive, stereotyped, involuntary movements and vocalizations called tics. |
Tics vary in type, frequency, location, and severity. The average age of onset is between 7 and 10 years with worst symptoms in the early teens and improvement occurring in the late teens and continuing into adulthood. |
Diabetes is another common disorder among children and youth. There are two types of diabetes: type I and type II. Type I is insulin-dependent diabetes, one of the most common metabolic disorders of childhood. In this condition the student lacks insulin production, which leads to disturbances in carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism. Researchers are not sure what specifically causes type I diabetes, but there appears to be a genetic susceptibility.
Up to a few years ago, individuals who developed type II diabetes were usually more than 30 years of age and often were overweight. Today a national epidemic of type II diabetes is following the epidemic of obesity in children and youth (
Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, 1996
;
Williamson, 2000
). Not only has obesity affected what children can physically accomplish, it has drastically affected their health. Being overweight decreases the body’s sensitivity to insulin. This decrease in insulin sensitivity is a primary factor in the development of type II diabetes. In one study, researchers from the fields of nursing, medicine, and public health found that 7% of a sample of 700 school-age children had already developed three of the leading risk factors for heart disease and type II diabetes, including a high insulin level, high blood pressure, and either elevated levels of fats or not enough of the “good cholesterol” (Williamson).
Children may also be affected by other chronic health conditions. For example, children living in poverty may be exposed to lead by ingesting small pieces of old, peeling paint. Even the dust from lead paint that has become embedded in carpets continues to expose children to the dangers of lead poisoning each time the rug is vacuumed.
When young children suffer traumatic insults to the brain, there may be chronic and long-lasting health impairments. For example, a child might experience a sudden blow to the head as the result of a car accident. Or an angry adult might shake a child, even for a few seconds, causing the brain to bounce back and forth within the skull. These actions can result in bruising, swelling, and bleeding of the brain, resulting in permanent brain damage.
Students with other health impairments generally have medical conditions that require ongoing monitoring and attention (
Table. 2.1
). Some students need to be hospitalized at times, whereas others simply have reduced stamina that prevents them from following the busy routine of a typical school day. The characteristics of the individual impairment can interfere with the lowered or elevated level of alertness, such as those of students with ADHD.
Irregular school attendance is one of the indicators that children are not functioning well. In class, children with other health impairments do not always perform at a level equal to that of their peers. When children and their families first learn about an unexpected, long-lasting, medical condition, they may have many questions, fears, and feelings of anger that they have to deal with. During this time, the child’s doctors may need to experiment with various types of medications and dosages before finding the one that meets the child’s needs.
Sometimes physicians ask parents and teachers to make careful observations of the child’s behavior. Noting periods in the day when the child is very active or very passive may be helpful to physicians as they make decisions about treatment options. More often than not, the treatment decisions include identifying an effective medication and regulating the dosage. Educators work closely with school nurses when medications must be stored and administered at school.
When a young child has asthma, the triggers, or conditions that cause it, may not be known. Finding out just what triggers the inflammation is often a process that occurs as medical professionals work with the family. To compound the difficulties, some children may have a specific trigger, whereas for others, a combination of triggers brings on the condition. Parents are valuable resources, informing the school about what factors may bring on an asthma attack in their child.
Today the United States as well as many countries across the world are experiencing a serious epidemic of childhood obesity. Over the past decade, childhood obesity for children ages 2–5 has more than doubled (Committee on Progress in Preventing Childhood Obesity, 2007). Obesity in young children may lead to type II diabetes during the school years.
By the time students reach the upper elementary grades, they may need the emotional support of those around them who understand their fears and anxieties and, in some cases, their anger. Teachers, naturally, are anxious as well, especially if the condition is complex and unfamiliar. With adequate assistance from health care professionals, educators can plan appropriate educational programs that allow children and youth to be with their friends and to continue their education.
ASTHMA.
Working with the family, educators can learn the results of medical tests that have identified the child’s triggers and plan accordingly. For example, if an educator knows that the student has inhaled-induced asthma to certain cleaning agents, the school will need to eliminate this trigger. If the student has exercise-induced asthma, the teacher will need to provide a choice of mild to moderate activities.
If the child has mild asthma, a physician usually prescribes medication to prevent airway-lining inflammation. This medication is typically given through an inhaler. For children with moderately severe asthma, the physician may recommend an anti-inflammatory medication that the child takes on a regular basis to control lining inflammation. In addition, the child may need to supplement this regimen with an inhaler. The severity of the asthma at any one time will affect the child’s stamina and ability to participate in the regular classroom routine and outside activities such as recess or special field trips.
Type II diabetes requires a lifelong commitment of blood sugar monitoring, healthy eating, regular exercise, and, sometimes, diabetes medications or insulin therapy. Students need to keep their blood sugar level as close to normal as possible to delay or prevent complications. By understanding more about type II diabetes, educators can be aware of possible complications:
• Blood sugar is typcially highest 1 to 2 hours after a meal.
• Physical activity lowers blood sugar levels.
• During a cold or illness, the body produces hormones that raise blood sugar level.
• The body also produces hormones in response to prolonged stress that may prevent insulin from working proplerly. (
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2003
)
Because students with chronic health impairments often require hospitalizations or periods where they may need to receive home-based instruction, teachers can use technology to assist learning. Safraz was diagnosed with leukemia a few months ago. Some of the teachers at his school began talking about ways that they might continue to support Safraz in his classes. They decided to make their lectures available via podcast so that Safraz could keep up with the material on his iPod. An unexpected result was that the teachers found that the podcasts quickly became popular with all the students, who used them to review the material.
Sometimes educators need more information about the medical condition of a student. MedlinePlus is an online medical encyclopedia that provides extensive resources on disorders and disabilities. Written in everyday language, it presents information on various disorders, their causes, symptoms, treatment, and prognosis.
For beginning educators, the Council for Exceptional Children, Division for Physical and Health Disabilities provides a good Web site for learning more about educational services for students with other health impairments who receive services in schools, in hospitals, or at home. More information about particular medical conditions can be found at specific Web sites. For example, the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America provides a wealth of information about asthma, including facts and frequently asked questions. The American Diabetes Association Web site contains information about both type I and type II diabetes and about ways to encourage good heath.
• Understanding students with disabilities includes the knowledge that one student can experience mild difficulties in academic or behavioral areas, whereas the same disability in another student may affect the student’s educational functioning to a more significant degree.
• Students with learning disabilities have average to above-average intelligence but experience difficulty in one or more academic areas. Learning disabilities may be caused by one or more factors; however, brain-based research indicates that there are anatomical differences in the structure of the brain.
• Students with ADHD have persistent patterns of inattention and hyperactivity that are more prevalent than in other children and youth of the same age. ADHD may be caused by biological or environmental factors; however, research findings indicate that there are differences in the brain structure controlling attention and impulses.
• Students with medical conditions that are either acute or chronic may receive special education services under the term other health impairments. Although this term covers a broad range of medical conditions, students receiving services under this eligibility term have conditions that not only impact on health, physical strength, and stamina but also the student’s attitude and emotional well-being.
Autism
Spectrum Disorders
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
Describe some of the causes of emotional disturbance and the characteristics of students who receive special education services under this eligibility term.
Describe some of the causes of mental retardation and the characteristics of students who receive special education services under this eligibility term.
Describe some of the causes of autism spectrum disorders and the characteristics of students who receive special education services under this eligibility term.
Some disabilities, such as emotional disturbance, mental retardation, and autism spectrum disorders interfere not only with learning but also with displaying positive behaviors and interacting with others. For example, Abdallah, a student who received services under the eligibility term emotional disturbance, experiences difficulty in academic work because of long periods of absence. The student’s diagnosis, clinical depression, also interferes with other aspects of the student’s life. The student has difficulty sleeping and eating. Concentrating on assignments is difficult when thoughts of suicide keep recurring.
Emotional disturbance
, mental retardation, and autism often affect students’ social skills, communication with others, and adaptive behaviors. Many students with these disabilities must learn skills to cope daily with the physical and emotional challenges that chronic disabilities bring. Students also need to learn how to live independently, such as learning how to care for themselves and work with others. In diagnosing some disabilities such as those associated with the education diagnosis of emotional disturbance, those described under mental retardation, or autism spectrum disorders, the IEP team may use both educational criteria described in IDEA and criteria outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Used by psychiatrists and psychologists, this manual includes diagnostic categories with criteria and descriptions to aid clinical judgment in classifying a wide range of disorders related to learning, behavior, and mental health. Some of the disabilities that are included in DSM-IV-TR (
American Psychiatric Association [APA]; 2000
) are disruptive behavior disorders, including oppositional defiant disorders and conduct disorders; eating disorders; mood and anxiety disorders; mental retardation, including mild, moderate, severe, and profound types; autism; and other pervasive developmental disorders. In this chapter we examine DSM-IV-TR criteria frequently used in characterizing these students we discuss in the sections that follow.
·
Notebook
Snapshot: Meet Juanita
“I’m in the tenth grade, and for as long as I can remember, it’s been hard for me to make friends. I used to feel sad and I would try really hard, but then I would say something and they’d take it the wrong way. I mean, sometimes I don’t really know what to say or how to say it.
“Mr. D is my favorite teacher, but I know that I give him a hard time. I don’t know why I do this—it just seems to happen. Sometimes he’s really nice and shows me some cool computer stuff—like how to use this drawing program. He says that I am really good in art and design. Maybe I’ll be an architect some day. But he says I’ve got to get my act together.”
… and Juanita’s Foster Parents
“Juanita lived with several different families before coming to us about 5 years ago. Her mother is serving time in prison for drug dealing, and her grandmother is no longer well enough for Juanita to live with her. Previous foster placements have not worked out for Juanita. We are grateful for the state agency that has worked closely with us to help define appropriate rules and expectations while making our home a good place for Juanita. Juanita loves animals and spends a lot of time with our two dogs and several cats. As part of her chores, she is responsible for feeding and brushing them. They stand by the window, waiting each day for her to come home from school. But we also worry about Juanita. She rarely receives any messages from other teenagers in spite of our attempts to encourage her to participate in after-school activities.”
After reading this brief snapshot about Juanita, how would you describe her special strengths and abilities? As you read the sections that follow, consider what causes emotional disabilities. What characteristics of emotional disturbance are typical for Juanita? What are other characteristics that you might observe in students with emotional disturbance? If you were Juanita’s teacher, what additional information would you want to know?
When do student behaviors become problematic? In educational settings, students may exhibit a range of acceptable behaviors, depending on individual teacher expectations, classroom rules, and school policies. Educators can easily identify students with problem behaviors, such as acting out or aggression, however, it is harder for them to recognize students who are quiet, withdrawn, or depressed as quickly. Behavior problems such as these are troublesome and may be equally challenging in responding to interventions. The federal definition of emotional disturbance, defined in IDEA, states that a student has
A condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child’s educational performance:
(a) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.
(b) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers.
(c) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.
(d) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
(e) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.
The term includes schizophrenia. Emotional disturbance does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance. (Sec. 300.8)
Students with moderate disabilities who carry the educational diagnosis of “emotional disturbance” may carry a more specific DSM diagnosis according to their psychological or psychiatric report. Oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder represent these types of diagnoses. Oppositional defiant disorder includes disobedience and opposition to authority figures; conduct disorder is more serious.
To be diagnosed with oppositional defiant disorder, a student must show a recurrent pattern of negative, defiant, disobedient, and hostile behavior toward authority figures for a period of at least 6 months (APA, 2000). In the classroom, a teacher may observe behavior such as resisting directions, unwillingness to compromise with others, and stubbornness that is not age-appropriate. Students may be argumentative and defiant and use verbal aggression.
A student who is diagnosed with conduct disorder has a chronic condition consisting of behavior patterns that violate the basic rights of others or school rules and norms of the community. Conduct disorders may be diagnosed in children 10 years of age or younger. Children and youth with conduct disorders often initiate bullying and intimidating behavior. They frequently are involved in fights and use weapons that can cause physical harm. Students with conduct disorders destroy the property of others and can be extremely cruel to people or animals. They frequently are absent from school for periods of time for no good reason. Students with conduct disorder show little concern for and understanding of others (APA, 2000).
DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000) cautions clinicians to consider specific culture, age, and gender features before making a diagnosis of conduct disorder. For example, an individual who lives in a high-crime area may have assumed some of the characteristic behaviors of conduct disorder as a protective defense. A new student from a war-torn country may have a long history of aggressive behaviors that were necessary to survive. In neither of these cases are the behaviors symptomatic of individual dysfunction; rather, they are a reaction to the social environment in which the student is or was living.
Students who engage in aggressive and other antisocial behaviors and are convicted of crimes are placed in the juvenile justice system. In fact, a large percentage of juvenile offenders are students with learning and behavior problems, although their disability may not be identified. Children and youth who are placed in correctional institutions, special-purpose schools, or treatment facilities are entitled to the same referral, assessment, and special education and related services under IDEA as all children and youth.
Eating disorders include severe problems associated with eating. Both anorexia and bulimia are diagnosed using DSM criteria because they have established psychological or behavioral syndromes. Anorexia is a condition in which an individual refuses to maintain a healthy body weight. Bulimia is characterized by binge eating followed by behaviors that attempt to purge the body of food, such as excessive exercise or self-induced vomiting. Anorexia usually begins during early adolescence, between ages 13 and 18 years (APA, 2000).
Mood disorders include a family of disorders, defined by DSM-IV-TR, that are divided into depressive disorders, bipolar disorders, disorders due to a general medical condition, and mood disorders that are substance induced. Children and youth who experience depression may be sad or irritable. Their symptoms also include changes in appetite, weight, or sleep, decreased energy, difficulty thinking or concentrating, or recurrent thoughts of death or suicide (APA, 2000). Depression may include a panic attack or separation anxiety in children. A
panic attack
consists of a specific period in which the individual experiences sudden and intense apprehension, fearfulness, or terror, often associated with a feeling of impending doom in the absence of real danger (APA). Other symptoms that accompany a panic attack include sweating, trembling, a feeling of smothering, or a feeling of losing control. The attack begins suddenly and builds, lasting for about 10 minutes.
Separation anxiety
occurs when a child expresses excessive anxiety concerning separation from home or from the primary care giver(s) beyond that expected of children of that age. The disturbance lasts for at least 4 weeks (APA).
Bipolar disorders are characterized by manic episodes in which the individual experiences an elated or irritable mood for at least a week or mixed episodes. Frequently the individual also experiences a combination of elated or irritable and depressive episodes (APA, 2000). Students may be truant or experience school failure during these periods.
Mood disorders related to a general medical condition include a persistent depressed mood or irritability that is due to the physiological effects of a general medical condition (APA, 2000). This mood disorder may accompany chronic or incurable diseases such as cancer, spinal cord injury, or AIDS. For many individuals, thoughts of suicide may be present. In contrast, substance-induced mood disorders are due to the physiological effects of drug abuse, a medication, or a toxin (APA, 2000). Characteristics of this type of mood disorder depend on the nature of the substance and when it was used.
According to DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000), an individual’s culture and ethnicity influence both the experience of mood disorders and the way an individual describes feelings. In some cultures, individuals experience depression in terms of physical symptoms rather than sadness. For example, people from Latino and Mediterranean cultures complain of nerves or headaches; individuals from Asian cultures speak of weakness or “imbalance”; and those from Middle Eastern cultures speak of problems of the heart.
Professionals are rarely able to identify one determining factor to explain why students act or behave as they do. Many factors, such as biological, educational, economic, familial, learning, psychological, and societal factors, contribute to causes of emotional or behavioral problems. For example, biological conditions may include the following:
• Genetics
• Biochemical and neuropsychological imbalances
• Temperament characterized by less adaptability to change and a more negative mood
Educational conditions may include the following:
• Low teacher expectations
• Limited connections between the school and the student’s family and community members
• Lack of caring and respect among peers
Economic, familial, and societal factors of poverty, abuse, lack of caring adults, poor housing, and overcrowding put children at risk. Psychological factors such as difficulty in bonding and attachment disorders contribute to behavior problems and the ability to form strong relationships.
Teachers regularly observe behavior problems in preschoolers and children in the early elementary grades. Because young children often experience behavior difficulties as they learn how to share with others, to respect other children’s property and space, and to follow a teacher’s directions, how do teachers know when a child’s behaviors indicate a more serious problem and what do these behaviors look like? Early childhood educators (
Bowe, 2008
;
Squires & Bricker, 2007
) describe some of the typical problems that a teacher may observe:
• Frequent crying or sulking
• Actively resisting by physically or verbally defending a position (or possessions)
• Displaying aggressive revenge by physically or verbally retaliating against another child or an adult
• Seeking out an adult for comfort to a degree beyond that of other children
Young children often display problem behaviors; in fact, early childhood teachers generally spend much time assisting children in learning socially constructive ways to express feelings. When these problem behaviors persist for a long period of time in spite of a teacher’s intervention, they may be significant, prompting the teacher to complete a referral to the multidisciplinary team.
A teacher uses specialized instruction so that a child with developmental delays can acquire knowledge and skills.
For preschool children with persistent problem behaviors, some states follow the federal definitions of eligibility for special education services, as described in IDEA. In other words, teachers look for behaviors that have occurred over a long period of time and that are affecting other areas of the child’s development. The regulations of other states differ slightly from those defining the emotional disturbance category and the definition in the federal law and serve preschool and even early elementary children under the noncategorical term
developmental delay
. This broad term covers five developmental domains (
Figure 3.1
).
Developmental delay
also is a term that a state may use to serve other children who will later be identified as having mental retardation, learning disabilities, or ADHD. Thus, young children may receive services under different labels at an individual state’s discretion.
Figure 3.1 Young children may receive services under the category developmental delay
Source: From IDEA 34 C.F.R., Sec. 300.8.
Students with emotional disturbance demonstrate a wide range of strengths and needs. Many students are resourceful, energetic, and resilient. They could complete high-quality academic work; yet their problem behaviors interfere with their successful achievement, self-image, and interpersonal relationships.
READING.
Students with emotional disturbance vary greatly in their achievement levels. Some students may be proficient readers, demonstrating a high level of achievement in the classroom, whereas others are avid readers when they are able to choose an area of interest. On the other hand, students with emotional disturbance may have associated learning disabilities that interfere with reading achievement. Learning to read may add to the stress and frustration that the student is experiencing already. Along with lack of achievement, the student may be absent or truant on a regular basis, thus further impeding progress.
MATHEMATICS.
As with reading achievement, the achievement of students with emotional disturbance varies greatly in mathematics. Some students excel in mathematics, whereas others struggle. For students to develop mathematical understandings, educators plan instructional sequences that build on information presented in prior lessons. A student who is absent frequently or truant misses key information needed to grasp the major concepts and ideas. Lack of consistent attention through the early grades results in significant academic deficits for high school students. Researchers (
Lane, Carter, Pierson, & Glaeser, 2006
) studied 45 high school students identified with emotional disturbance. They found that these high school students displayed substantial academic deficits in the areas of mathematics, reading, and written language.
ORAL LANGUAGE.
Most students develop expressive and listening skills naturally, with little direct instruction. However, students with emotional disabilities often need instruction in using language in a functional way, according to a set of rules, or pragmatics. They may have difficulty in using turn-taking skills in conversation, entering into a conversation, or interpreting the meaning of the speaker.
CONTENT AREAS.
Content-area subjects may be areas of strength for students. For example, science activities that involve hands-on work with materials, tools, and laboratory equipment provide active ways to learn.
Social studies
classes that involve projects with flexibility in demonstrating achievement provide students with important choices and control over their learning. Sometimes students have special interests, such as designing graphics or building small engines, that teachers can capitalize on as part of a social studies or science unit.
When students do not attend school on a regular basis, however, their absence or truancy creates problems in the content areas. When students are asked to demonstrate achievement through performance-based tasks, irregular attendance may result in the student missing information regarding the task, how it will be assessed, or how it should be performed. Students miss opportunities to add materials to their portfolio or to see examples of what the teacher expects.
Problem behaviors fall into one of two broad categories: (a) disruptive and antisocial behaviors and (b) inhibited or withdrawal behaviors. Disruptive and antisocial behaviors present challenges to teachers because they are persistent and difficult to manage. These behaviors include
• acting out;
• using inappropriate language;
• displaying physical and verbal aggression; and
• defying authority.
Students with inhibited or withdrawal behaviors are at great risk of dropping out of school. Their problems typically go unrecognized if they choose to sit in the back of the class and remain quiet. Some of the symptoms include
• low achievement;
• low level of participation with peers;
• nonassertive behaviors;
• problems with self;
• rejection by peers; and
• social withdrawal.
Educators working with students with problem and challenging behaviors use the Internet to access a wide range of professional information. A good place to begin is with the Division for Children with Behavioral Disorders, part of the professional organization of the Council for Exceptional Children.
One of the best sites for beginning teachers is the National Association of School Psychologists Web site, where educators can download useful information and read position papers. For educators working with students with mental illness, the American Psychiatric Association is a helpful resource. This is a national medical organization whose members specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of mental and emotional illnesses and substance abuse disorders.
Snapshot: Meet Keisha
“My name is Keisha. I am in the ninth grade. I like my teachers. I like cheering. I am a cheerleader manager. I like to eat at McDonald’s.”
… and Her Mother
As you can see from Keisha’s comments above, she is brief and to the point when someone asks her a question. She is so excited about being a team manager for the cheering squad this year. She goes to all the games, both home and away, and wears the team jersey everywhere. The boys and girls give her plenty of ‘high fives’ during the games. It’s been a great experience for her.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
Cultural Identity
Sometimes various cultural and linguistic perspectives contribute to misunderstandings on the part of educators. In the following section, we examine several research findings concerning student behaviors and classroom discipline. How might you use these research findings to your future classroom?
Now and then a teacher’s understanding and style of classroom management come into conflict with students’ cultural differences. Many teachers lack the skills to use interpersonal communication and problem solving with diverse student populations (
Lane-Garon, 2001
). In an attempt to deal with cultural differences, one study found that teachers focused on surface behaviors and misbehaviors and imposed inconsistent discipline (
Sheets, 2002
). Schwartz (2001) wrote that before disciplining a student, educators should demonstrate respect for the student’s concerns by considering the reasons for the perceived misbehavior and then identify a consequence appropriate to the misdemeanor.
In a study that examined American Indian and Alaska Native students and their attitudes toward school, Jacobs and Reyhner (2002) found that their families resisted pressure from schools to assimilate the students into the school culture. This family resistance was a factor in the students’ ambivalent attitudes toward their education and in supporting antischool and oppositional identities. This study further explored ways of reaching these students through a constructivist or experiential approach. You can read more about teaching methods based on constructivism in
Chapter 7
.
“I am pleased with her work in school this year. She is continuing to work on her reading and writing skills, and she can recognize many signs out in the community now. She works with the special education teacher for much of the school day, but she takes food services with all the other ninth graders who have chosen this elective. I hope that someday when she finishes school, she can find a job working in one of our local restaurants. We have started planning the skills that she will need to obtain and keep a job during the IEP team meetings. Finding a good job after school and a place to live on her own is what worries me the most now.”
After reading the brief snapshot of Keisha, describe her special strengths and needs. As you read the following sections, consider some of the causes of mental retardation. What characteristics are typical of students with mental retardation, and which of these characteristics might describe Keisha? If you were Keisha’s teacher, what additional information would you want to know?
Students with mild and moderate mental retardation experience difficulty in the areas of academics and adaptive behaviors. Students with mild mental retardation typically experience delays in learning new information, compared to their classmates, and receive specially designed instruction that addresses their academic needs. On the other hand, students with moderate mental retardation experience substantial difficulties both academically and behaviorally. With additional support and instruction, most students acquire basic academic skills, self-help, and social skills associated with personal independence and the appropriate use of these skills to participate and be contributing members of the community.
IDEA defines mental retardation as “a condition in which there is significant sub-average general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance” (Sec. 300.8).
The DSM criteria further define mental retardation as occurring before age 18 and state that, in addition to subaverage intellectual functioning, an individual must have significant limitation in adaptive function in at least two of the following areas: communication self-care, home living, social/interpersonal skills, use of community resources, self-direction, functional academic skills, work, leisure, health, and safety (APA, 2000).
General intellectual functioning is assessed using one or more standardized tests that are administered to the student. School psychologists typically use the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children-IV (
Wechsler, 2003
), which assesses the intellectual ability of children 6 through 16 years of age, or the Stanford-Binet-V (
Roid, 2003
). Scores on intelligence tests are reported as an intelligence quotient (IQ). Students without mental retardation, that is, students who have typical cognitive development for their age, score in the average range of 70–130 when they take an IQ test; students who have significantly subaverage functioning score 70 or below. DSM – IV – TR describes four degrees of severity of mental retardation based on IQ level (APA, 2000):
|
Mild retardation: |
IQ level 50–55 to approximately 70 |
|
Moderate retardation: |
IQ level 34–40 to 50–55 |
|
Severe retardation: |
IQ level 20–25 to 35–40 |
|
Profound retardation: |
IQ level below 20 or 25 |
The American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (
American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities [formerly AAMR], 2002
) defines mental retardation as “… a disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. This disability originates before 18” (p. 8).
Assessing a student’s adaptive functioning usually includes a developmental and medical history as well as a standardized assessment that a special educator or another professional on the IEP team administers. Examples of common instruments include the Adaptive Behavior Assessment System—Second Edition (
Harrison & Oakland, 2003
), which provides forms that may be used by parents and teachers to assess the daily functional skills of the student, and the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition (
Sparrow, Cicchetti, & Balla, 2005
), which can be used to identify adaptive and maladaptive behaviors.
Mental retardation
may result from one or more factors, such as chromosomal disorders, societal problems, or difficulties during pregnancy and the birth process. Chromosomal disorders may be genetic or may result from a random error during the embryo’s development. In most cases, a screening test during pregnancy can identify a chromosomal disorder such as Down syndrome. Problems during pregnancy, such as the use of drugs and alcohol, can cause mental retardation. Prematurity, low birth weight, brain damage, lack of oxygen, or environmental hazards also cause mental retardation. More frequently than not, however, the cause of a student’s mental retardation is unknown.
Mental retardation is one of the most common disabilities; as many as 3 out of every 100 Americans have it (
National Information Center for Children with Disabilities, 2004
). Students with mild mental retardation comprise the largest subgroup of children with mental retardation. These students develop appropriate social and oral communication skills during preschool and the early elementary grades. In fact, any limitations may not be obvious at first. In later grades, students with mild mental retardation experience more difficulties, especially in academic areas, and are slower than other children in learning new information and in acquiring new skills.
Students with moderate mental retardation comprise only about 10% of students with mental retardation (APA, 2000). Acquiring skills at a slower pace, most students with moderate mental retardation eventually develop adequate oral communication skills, functional reading, and functional mathematics. Their academic work typically focuses on practical and concrete skills and knowledge. A student’s IEP also includes developing and enhancing adaptive behavior skills. These skills include a collection of conceptual, social, and practical skills that all individuals need to function in their daily lives (American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities [formerly AAMR], 2002). A student’s IEP might include, for example, understanding money concepts (conceptual), avoiding victimization (social), and meal preparation (practical).
Young children with mild mental retardation may not be readily identified or may be identified as having general developmental delays, whereas children with moderate mental retardation typically exhibit significant delays across developmental areas. Infants attain developmental milestones, such as turning over, sitting, and pulling to stand, several months after the typical period for children without disabilities. In addition to motor delays, young children with moderate mental retardation develop language and self-help skills at a much slower rate. A student with moderate mental retardation who enters school often has received
early intervention services
for several years. Early intervention consists of a variety of services, such as infant stimulation and developmental programs, that provide parents with special assistance and show them how to encourage their child’s development. As part of the program, an early intervention specialist may work with the parents in a specific area of self-help skills, such as feeding and dressing or demonstrating ways to increase language development. Some early intervention programs provide center-based services, whereby an early intervention specialist facilitates a toddler play group that encourages social skills, language, and cognitive development. Infants and toddlers with disorders or hereditary conditions that cause mental retardation do not receive early intervention services under the IDEA disability category mental retardation until they reach age 3 or older. Rather, similar to students who will later be identified as having emotional disturbance, very young children and their families receive services based on the eligibility category of developmental delay (Figure 3.1).
A teacher offers a variety of materials to engage learners.
The term developmental delay covers five areas of development. In the early elementary grades, children with mental retardation still will be working on skills in these areas, which other children have long since mastered. These domains include:
• self-help skills such as toileting, dressing, working independently, and taking responsibility for putting away materials after use;
• language development and using words to communicate;
• fine motor skills such as using scissors, markers, and crayons;
• learning colors and shapes; and
• social skills such as taking turns and sharing.
As students with mild mental retardation advance in school, they experience decreased ability in keeping up academically and demonstrate difficulties in acquiring appropriate social and practical behaviors. Students with moderate mental retardation lag significantly in academics compared to other children of the same age. Similar to students without disabilities, though, students with mild mental retardation do not fit any one category. Some of these students may have concomitant conditions such as speech or language impairments, visual impairments, or hearing loss. Approximately one half of children born with Down syndrome have heart problems, many of which are surgically correctable (
MedlinePlus, 2007
).
Additionally, many students with mental retardation may experience poor muscle tone, which, in turn, affects oral language and gross motor and fine motor skills. Muscle strength and endurance also affect a student’s physical fitness. Many children with mental retardation are overweight. Bandini, Curtin, Hamad, Tybor, and Musc (2005) found that the risk that children with developmental disabilities will be overweight is at least as great as children who are developing typically.
ACADEMIC AREAS.
Many students with mental retardation become functional readers, learn mathematical skills, and participate in science, social studies, and other areas of the curriculum. As students advance through the grades, though, delays become more noticeable. Mental retardation decreases an individual’s ability to achieve in common classroom activities such as these:
• Recalling previously learned material
• Explaining why an event happens
• Estimating amounts
• Predicting consequences
• Applying learned material to new situations
• Analyzing relationships
• Comparing and contrasting two or more ideas
Consequently, these students need assistance to function well. To assist a student, the IEP team usually identifies one or more
supports
. Supports include other people, such as one or more students who provide friendship activities, a teacher aide who provides behavioral support, or modifications to the environment that the IEP team identifies. Although the purpose of the support(s) is to reduce the discrepancy between the person and the environmental requirements (American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities [formerly AAMR], 2002), educators must ensure that a person providing support does not create a situation of learned dependence. As students with mental retardation enter middle school and then secondary school, they, like their classmates without disabilities, must learn to function as independently as possible.
To help students, special educators teach new concepts by using concrete examples. They demonstrate and provide the students with as many hands-on materials and experiences as possible. Frequently they break new tasks into small steps, teaching one step at a time. They provide demonstrations and assistance when needed. Educators also give immediate feedback to the students regarding attempts and progress.
Students with mild and moderate mental retardation have concomitant limitations in adaptive behavior skills involving three general areas: conceptual, social, and practical (American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities [formerly AAMR], 2002).
To meet the needs of students with moderate mental retardation, special educators need to focus on practical knowledge and skills in each of the areas of adaptive behavior. Instruction for elementary school students may include, for example, healthy food preparation, keeping the body safe from harm, and learning how to use the public transportation system. The curriculum at the high school level may include effective money management, developing good consumer skills, and obtaining medical care.
Improving the health of persons with mental retardation is a national concern. Following a national conference, a document entitled Closing the Gap: A National Blueprint to Improve the Health of Persons with Mental Retardation (2001) was issued; it details public concerns. “Compared to people without mental retardation, children, adolescents, and adults with mental retardation experience poorer health and more difficulty in finding appropriate care” (p. 2). To address these concerns, the Health Resources and Services Administration, the March of Dimes, the American Academy of Pediatrics, and Family Voices are promoting a 10-year plan for appropriate community-based services for children and youth with special health care needs.
Educators and other individuals often describe students with mental retardation as happy and content. This is far from the truth. Similar to students without cognitive impairments, students with mental retardation are at risk for emotional disorders. In fact, some researchers have found a higher rate of depression in individuals with mental retardation (
McBrien, 2003
) and, particularly, depression in individuals with Down syndrome (
Khan, Osinowo, & Pary, 2002
).
Both fine and gross motor activities require an individual to maintain a certain level of muscle tension, or muscle tone, in the legs, arms, or fingers. Some disorders that result in mental retardation have associated low muscle tone or other physical conditions that impact a student’s motor skills. Lack of muscle tone affects not only handwriting but also other fine motor tasks, such as pouring a solution into a beaker during science class or using a mouse to select a desired Web choice.
Gross motor skills may be affected too. Low muscle tone makes it difficult to run and play competitive games. Lack of opportunity, combined with lack of success, frequently creates conditions in which students are discouraged from pursuing interests that involve high levels of activity. In school, being clumsy and awkward may make it difficult to walk carefully around a crowded classroom without bumping into or knocking over materials.
Students with mental retardation frequently have difficulty producing and using the sounds of oral language. In fact, speech and language impairments are frequently associated with mental retardation. Some students have articulation disorders, making it difficult to produce the correct sounds. Because the tongue is a muscle, students with low muscle tone frequently have difficulty in articulating many speech sounds.
Being able to produce speech, though, doesn’t imply that a student understands and can apply the “social rules” or pragmatics of language. Special education services often include instruction on learning conversational skills to be a friend and a good worker. Instruction may include areas such as sharing, showing consideration for others, and appropriate ways to refuse a request.
Some students with moderate mental retardation have significant difficulties in using expressive language to communicate with others. Their specialized education program may include using an augmentative or alternative communication system (ACC). An AAC may be as simple as a card with letters or words that a student uses by pointing to the symbols to communicate a thought or request. Other AAC systems use digitized speech to produce a real voice and dynamic displays to access and store hundreds of words, phrases, and sentences. GoTalk and DynaVox are two examples of AAC devices. AACs are considered AT. As with other AT devices, the student’s IEP team can recommend an AAC during the annual IEP meeting. During the school year, the special educator will work closely with the speech and language pathologist to assist the student in learning how to use the communication system in the classroom, at home, and in the community. By using a Web search engine, you can locate a wealth of information about AACs.
Students with mental retardation experience attention and memory problems. They may have difficulty maintaining concentration or they may attend to the wrong thing during classroom teaching and learning activities. Students also have difficulty remembering information. Memory difficulties include not only short- and long-term memory problems but also the inability to maintain current information in working memory to complete a task or activity. In later chapters, we examine teaching methods and strategies that educators use to help students with mental retardation.
Teachers working with children with disabilities frequently come across diagnoses with which they are not familiar. When one first-year teacher learned that one of his students had Turner’s syndrome, he turned to the Internet for more information about this condition. There are many professional organizations from which educators can learn more about mental retardation.
First, the Council for Exceptional Children, Division on Developmental Disabilities, provides information on publications and conferences as well as a large collection of links to other organizations on developmental disabilities. One of the best-known national organizations, the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD), is an excellent overall resource. The Arc of the United States, another national association, focuses on both children and adults with mental retardation.
When educators begin planning transition services, they often start with the National Center on Secondary Education and Transition. Its Web site provides resources that promote the transition of youth with disabilities from school to the community, including employment, postsecondary education and training, and independent living. Parents often find this site helpful, too. Another excellent resource for transition planning is the National Institute on Life Planning for Persons with Disabilities. At its Web site, visitors can learn more about person-centered planning for persons with disabilities and their families.
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Snapshot: Meet Raul’s Brother
“Raul’s my brother, and since he can’t speak, I’ll tell you a little about him. He has autism. That means that I have to help him a lot. He’s 5 years old and goes to my school, but he’s in a special class. His teacher is real nice, and she is helping him learn. She’s teaching him how to use these pictures to let her know what he wants, and she sends the pictures home with Raul in his backpack. Raul likes to watch me play games on the computer and I try to show him how to use the mouse, but usually he just likes to look at the screen.”
IN PRACTICE
Beginning teachers may be asked to teach children with a wide range of ages, abilities, and needs. They may inherit a classroom with limited materials, outdated supplies, and equipment that doesn’t work. These situations present special challenge and demand professional knowledge, creative thinking, and self-advocacy skills.
Classroom Focus
Let’s meet Michelle, who is just beginning her second year of teaching. She shares her story, “After graduating from college, my first teaching position was teacher/case manager of 18 students, ranging in age from 9 to 14 years in a rural Midwestern state. My room had been a regular classroom that had been divided in two and now I shared the space with the reading specialist. When I arrived, my half of the classroom was filled with outdated materials and equipment that no longer worked. There was hardly any money in the resource budget to purchase new items.
“My students covered the range! Some had multiple disabilities, three had emotional and behavior problems that were categorized as emotional disturbance, one student had Tourette syndrome, four students had autism, three students were diagnosed with mental retardation, and one student had experienced a traumatic brain injury as an infant. Most of the students attended their regular education class for at least 50% of the day. They came to my room for specialized instruction in math, reading, or language arts. Some of the students were considerably behind their peers academically and motivating many of them became a major challenge.
“A teacher assistant, whom I supervised and guided, provided some instruction to students in the classroom. I regularly met with six different general education teachers to check students’ progress, brainstorm ideas, and provide support in the classroom. The speech therapist saw some of the students one-on-one and ran two group activities weekly in her office. The occupational and physical therapists came into our classroom twice a week to work with all the children.”
Working Toward Solutions
“I wasn’t sure how I would begin, but I knew I needed to get organized. With so many people coming and going in my room, I knew I needed to organize a weekly schedule for the students as well as one for myself. Each morning I wrote the daily schedule on the board for all to see. I also kept a copy in my daily planner.
“However, one of my biggest concerns was how to make learning relevant to these students with limited resources. After one such conversation with the special education director, we decided to work toward a “life after school” program that would increase student motivation and academic skills. In October we opened the Paws and Claws Den Café, a snack bar open on Friday mornings. Thursday afternoons became a bit hectic as we did all the baking and preparing for the next morning. Each student was paid in Paws and Claws Dollars for the work that they put in and then they were allowed to shop in the Café Closet each week. Teachers and students in the school supported the café and were grateful for fresh-baked goodies to begin their Fridays. All my students worked very hard and were extremely proud of what they were accomplishing! Speech, occupational, and physical therapy became part of our program. Suddenly making change wasn’t so hard. Budgets were not so difficult. Students had a lot to write about and cleaning up after each café day was even fun.”
What the Research Says
Beginning teachers are often faced with a number of challenges. As a first-year teacher of students with mental retardation and other disabilities, Karen Carter (
Carter & Scruggs, 2001
) overcame many obstacles while addressing others. During her first year, she found that she needed well-developed interpersonal skills that she could use with parents, professionals, and paraprofessionals. She needed to be able to improvise when resources were limited and find innovative solutions to problems. During her first year, she needed advocacy skills for promoting the well-being of students with disabilities. These authors point out that a teacher’s perceived support from other school personnel is a key variable. First-year teachers who believe that they have the support of other teachers and administrators experience more satisfaction and less frustration.
My EducationLab: Your Turn
Begin by learning more about students with mental retardation. As a special educator, how would you work to prepare a student to enter the job market and to be a productive member of the community? Go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Intellectual Disabilities. Then watch the video “Beyond School: Rachel” and answer the accompanying questions. As a future teacher, how might you collaborate with the general education teacher and a student like Rachel? What are some ways that teachers use to make transitions easier for students? To learn more about this issue, read the article entitled “Transition Plans for Students with Disabilities” in the topic Intellectual Disabilities and answer the accompanying questions. Be prepared to share your ideas with classmates.
… and His Mother
“When Raul was a baby, I wondered why he seemed to be so different from his older brother. When he didn’t start talking, I spoke to the pediatrician about my concerns. He examined Raul and told me that sometimes children take a little longer to achieve these milestones than others. But I couldn’t stop being a little worried. At home, Raul would scream at times and it was so hard to comfort him. I didn’t know if he was sick or if he was trying to tell me something. My next visit to the pediatrician, I talked again about how worried I was, and the doctor decided to make arrangements for us to go to an evaluation clinic to get Raul tested. I think Raul was almost 2 years old then.
“The testing lasted many hours, and several different people saw Raul. I remember having to fill out a lot of forms and answer a lot of questions. Afterward, one of the doctors who had done some of the testing sat with me and explained that Raul had many characteristics of autism. I hardly knew what autism was, but the doctor was very patient and answered a lot of my questions. At first, I didn’t know what to do. I didn’t know how I was going to tell our relatives, and I was afraid of how they would react. It was very hard on everyone.
“But we started to learn all we could about autism. I spent days on the Internet searching for information, and then I met another parent who also has a son with autism. That has helped a lot—to be able to talk with someone who understands what we are going through. Then Raul started to receive special early intervention services, through our community infant and toddler agency. That was the best thing. An early childhood teacher came to our house and taught me ways to help Raul when he started screaming.
“Later, Raul was enrolled in a preschool program at our elementary school. This year he loves his teacher and is learning so much. We are very excited that he is communicating by using a picture exchange communication system. The teacher calls this PECS.”
After reading this brief snapshot about Raul, identify his special strengths and needs. As you read the sections that follow, consider possible causes of autism. Compare and contrast the characteristics that are typical of children with autism with those that Raul’s mother discusses. If you were Raul’s teacher, what additional information would you want to know?
Meet Sidney
“I am in the sixth grade. My favorite subject is math. I am in the math club at school. I like doing math. Numbers add up. Numbers and patterns. I want to go to college and maybe go into computer science. My hobby is playing the drums. I’ve been playing since I was 7 years old. Drums and music. I like that. Sometimes kids make fun of me, but they don’t understand about drums and music.”
… and His Mother
“Shortly before Sidney’s fourth birthday, he was diagnosed with
Asperger’s syndrome
. Sidney was not a cuddly baby, and as a toddler and preschooler he seemed more clumsy than the other children. Today he’s still uncoordinated—but maybe this is just part of preadolescence.
“Sidney participates in the regular sixth-grade class and works with the special educator for about an hour each day on social skills. We hope that this will help him interact more appropriately with other students. Sidney has a few rituals that sometimes other children don’t understand. For example, he likes to line up the books in the classroom library a certain way. As a result of this behavior, some of the children have said mean things and bullied him on the playground. Last week I had another meeting at school to discuss these concerns.
A teacher uses technology, such as an interactive white board to engage children both with and without disabilities.
“On the other hand, Sidney is so smart in math. The other day he and I went grocery shopping, and before the clerk had run the items through the checkout, he had calculated the total in his head. One organization that has helped us greatly is the Asperger Syndrome Coalition of the United States. This organization has helped us connect with other families and understand more about Sidney’s condition. Through the organization, Sidney, too, has been able to meet other students with Asperger’s syndrome.”
After reading this brief snapshot, how would you describe Sidney’s special strengths and needs? As you read the sections that follow, consider the characteristics that are typical of students with Asperger’s syndrome. How do these compare with what you learned about Sidney? If you were Sidney’s teacher, what additional information would you like to have?
Students with autism spectrum disorders exhibit a range of neurological disorders characterized by significant impairment in several areas of development. According to DSM-IV-TR, these pervasive developmental disorders include autism, Asperger’s syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), and
Rett syndrome
(
Table 3.1
). Each of these disorders has specific diagnostic criteria (APA, 2000).
Table 3.1 Autism and Other Pervasive Developmental Disorders
|
Age of Onset |
|||
| Autism |
Delays or abnormal functioning in social interaction, language, or symbolic or imaginative play by age 3. |
Marked difficulty in social interaction, communication, and development of interests. |
|
| Asperger’s syndrome |
Onset often recognized in school. |
Similar to autism but no significant delays in language or cognitive development. Difficulties in social interaction may be noted in school. |
|
|
Childhood disintegrative disorder |
After age 2 (and a period of typical early childhood development) but before age 10. |
Similar to autism and usually associated with severe mental retardation. |
|
|
Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified |
Later age of onset than autism (often used for atypical autism because of later age of onset or atypical symptoms). |
Similar to autism. |
|
| Rett syndrome |
Onset by age 4 after a period of typical early childhood development. |
Stereotyped hand movements, lack of coordination, severe impairment in expressive and receptive language development, usually associated with mental retardation. |
Source: Information taken from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (Copyright 2000). American Psychiatric Association.
Professionals identify autism spectrum disorders during a child’s first 3 years. According to IDEA, autism is
a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age 3, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism are engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences. Autism does not apply if a child’s educational performance is adversely affected primarily because the child has an emotional disturbance. A child who manifests the characteristics of autism after age three could be identified as having autism if the criteria above are satisfied. (Sec. 300.8)
The DSM diagnostic criteria for autism include significantly impaired development in social interaction and communication and markedly restricted activities and interests (APA, 2000). In most cases, children with autism have associated mental retardation. These children also have a range of behaviors, including hyperactivity, short attention span, aggressiveness, and self-injurious behavior. They may be oversensitive to sounds, light, odors, or touch. In adolescence, children with autism who have the intellectual capability of insight and self-understanding may become depressed when they realize the seriousness of their disorder (APA).
Individuals with autism may have concomitant disorders that create additional educational programming challenges. These include ADHD, depressive disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and anxiety disorders. About one third of children and adolescents with autism develop seizures (
National Institute of Mental Health, 2001
).
Autism is the most common pervasive developmental disorder, affecting 1 in approximately 150 births; its incidence is growing rapidly, at a rate of 10% to 17% a year (
Autism Society of America, 2007
). Today the United States and other countries are experiencing a rise in autism; the increase will continue to impact our schools for years. Interestingly, autism is three to four times more common in boys than in girls. However, Rett syndrome, a rare disorder within the autism spectrum, affects girls almost exclusively. After a period of seemingly normal development, the child regresses. The youngster stops talking and no longer enjoys social contact. Scientists have discovered a mutation in a single gene that can cause Rett syndrome. This may lead to doctors being able to treat this disorder much earlier (
National Institute of Mental Health, 2007
).
In contrast to other spectrum disorders, children with Asperger’s syndrome have characteristis of higher cognitive abilities and more typical language function. Although most individuals have at least subtle difficulties with pragmatic or social language, generally higher language skills are now felt to be one on the criteria for diagnosis of Asperger’s syndrome (
Bauer, 2007
). By definition, individuals with Asperger’s syndrome have at least normal IQ and sometimes range up into the very superior range (Bauer, 2007). Often children with Asperger’s syndrome have associated conditions such as Tourette’s syndrome, attentional problems, and mood disorders such as depression and anxiety.
The criteria described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR;
APA, 2000
) that psychologists use in identifying a child with Asperger’s syndrome include (1) typical cognitive development, adaptive behavior, and curiosity; and (2) typical language; as well as (3) a qualitative impairment in social interaction; (4) restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior; and (5) significant impairment in social, occupational, or other areas (p. 84).
There is no known single cause of autism; possible causes are still being studied. Some researchers are investigating possible links between hereditary and autism, because in some families there appear to be patterns of autism. Among identical twins, if one child has autism, then the other twin will be affected about 75% of the time; however in nonidentical twins, the other will be affected only about 3% of the time (
Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2007
). Another line of research is examining environmental factors, such as viral infections and exposure to toxic chemicals. At the Center for Autism Research and Treatment at the University of California, studies indicate that sometimes autism results from the combined effects of multiple genetic factors interacting with environmental factors (
Nishimura et al., 2007
). There also are lingering questions regarding vaccines and the risk to young children.
Asperger’s syndrome often is associated with a clear genetic component. In other words, Asperger’s syndrome may run in the family. One parent, usually the father, has Asperger’s syndrome or at least some of the characteristics associated with it. Other relatives of the child may also show temperamental traits such as having intense and limited interests, being compulsive, and being socially awkward (Bauer, 2007).
Although much remains to be learned about autism spectrum disorders, most experts accept that these disorders are associated with abnormalities in brain structure or function. Many research studies are now focusing on specific areas of the brain using MRI. The following results are just a small sample of ongoing research:
• Researchers focusing on frontal lobe anatomy found that individuals with autism showed significantly smaller frontal lobe parenchymal volume (
Schmitz, Daly, & Murphy, 2007
).
• Working with individuals with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders, such as Asperger’s syndrome, researchers found widespread neuronal dysfunction (
Kleinhans, Schweinsburg, Cohen, MÜller, & Courchesne, 2007
).
• There may be different neuroanatomical differences between individuals with high functioning autism and those with low functioning autism (
Lotspeich et al., 2004
).
Early warning signs of autism may be recognized in very young children. Infants may avoid eye contact and may not respond to a parent’s voice. As toddlers they do not develop language. Young children may appear fixated on a toy or activity, may rock, or may flap their hands. Like other young children we have read about in this chapter, children with autism frequently come to public school having received early intervention services as infants or toddlers. These services for very young children with disabilities may involve in-home support or therapeutic interventions in an early care or education program.
Students with autism often are obsessed with sameness or routine. They may treat others in ritualized ways. They may be able to remember long lists, such as bus schedules or the exact words of a variety of commercials, but the information tends to be repeated over and over, even in situations that are not appropriate.
Students with autism have difficulty developing relationships and communicating with others. Their continued lack of eye contact and delayed language skills are often misinterpreted by others and affect their ability to make and keep friends; they prefer to be left alone. Students with autism do not relate well to others. For example, they may
• prefer solitary activities;
• lack awareness of others;
• lack social skills to develop friendships; and
• show little interest in and enjoyment of others.
Students with autism usually have difficulty with both spoken language and nonverbal skills such as gestures and eye contact. Students with milder forms of autism may use speech but rarely initiate a conversation with other students. Their speech is characterized by lack of rhythm and intonation. Middle and secondary students lack an understanding of the use of social language and of how to make and keep a friend.
Students with more involved autism usually have a delay in the use of expressive and receptive language. They respond inconsistently; they appear to hear at some times but not at others. They may not be able to understand simple directions or questions, and their speech is characterized by repetitive language that is difficult to understand. Students who have even more involved autism not only do not develop speech, they do not communicate without specific intervention.
Thus, one of the goals of the IEP is to teach the student how to communicate. Special educators work closely with other team members, such as the speech and language pathologist and the consulting school psychologist, to design, develop, and implement a student’s communication program. For example, children and youth with autism learn how to use a picture exchange communication system (PECS). Using picture cards, a student learns to communicate by selecting a card to indicate a desired activity, thought, or idea. Research findings (
Kravits, Kamps, Kemmerer, & Potucek, 2002
;
Temple, 2007
) indicate that children with autism not only can learn to use PECS quickly and effectively but also can generalize the use of PECS to untrained settings.
When students with autism are left alone, they often exhibit restricted and repetitive behaviors and a persistent preoccupation with an object or activity. In the classroom, teachers see stereotyped body movements such as hand flapping, toe walking, rocking, or preoccupation with parts of objects such as the top of a pen or a frayed corner of a book. Students generally prefer (and may insist on) a routine.
Students with Asperger’s syndrome have characteristics that generally fall on the mild end of the autism spectrum. As with autism, there is a higher prevalence of boys than girls with Asperger’s syndrome; yet, unlike children with other forms of autism, children with Asperger’s syndrome are identified after age 3. Young children experience typical cognitive development and no marked delays in language development. However, they often have difficulty with pragmatics, or the use of social language. For example, they do not understand the social cues and give and take of conversation.
Similar to students with autism, students with Asperger’s syndrome may have repetitive and restrictive behaviors. For example, they often have obsessive routines, such as where they place food on the plate. They may be preoccupied with a particular subject, wishing to talk about it incessantly. Often parents are the first to observe these behaviors or language concerns and raise questions with the child’s doctor.
Many students with Asperger’s syndrome have exceptional skills or talents but are considered strange by their peers. As the years go on, these characteristics become more obvious and eccentric. As a result, students with Asperger’s syndrome are often at risk for being bullied and teased.
The Autism Society of America promotes opportunities for individuals across the autism spectrum and their families through advocacy, public awareness, education, and research. Its Web site is a rich source of information about autism, early intervention, educational placements and IEPs, transition, and various specialized instructional techniques and interventions.
For individuals who are looking for more in-depth information, MedLine Plus Health Information is a good source of information about the other disorders associated with autism spectrum disorders, including Rett’s and Asperger’s syndromes. After exploring several of these sites, compare and contrast the information available in terms of content and usefulness. Which sites do you think would be most helpful to first-year teachers?
The National Institute of Mental Health has a number of print and online publications with the latest research and information about this disability. The materials are well written and useful for beginning teachers or for families of students with autism. This site has extensive links to other resources. If you are interested in the global nature of this disability and worldwide resources, Autism Organizations Worldwide provides contact information and links to countries throughout the world.
In this chapter and the previous one, we examined some of the causes and characteristics of mild to moderate disabilities in students. Knowing more about the characteristics of a disability and the effect on learning and behavior helps special educators in planning instruction and selecting appropriate methods, instructional strategies, and materials. Generally, special educators will be working to increase student academic knowledge, communication skills, appropriate behaviors, social skills, attention, organization, or self-advocacy. We also examined some of the research findings in studies on the brain. The information that is emerging provides us with deeper understandings of how individuals learn. This research may also provide the base for designing more effective instruction in the future.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
Self-Assessment
Working toward a greater understanding of others and obtaining a degree of cultural competence is important for each of us in the 21st century. The National Center for Cultural Competence at Georgetown University has gathered a library of resources and has developed a vision for individuals who wish to begin this process. The Center views cultural competence as a continuum in which individuals acquire different levels of awareness, knowledge, and skills. Following is a portion of the Self-Assessment Checklist for Personnel Providing Services and Supports to Children with Disabilities & Special Health Needs and Their Families (
Goode, 2004
). To begin your own self-assessment, please select A, B, or C for each item listed below.
A = Things I do frequently
B = Things I do occasionally
C = Things I do rarely or never
: Materials and Resources
_____ I display pictures, posters and other materials that reflect the cultures and ethnic backgrounds of children and families served by my program or agency.
Communication Styles
_____ When possible, I insure that all notices and communiqués to parents are written in their language of origin.
_____ I understand that it may be necessary to use alternatives to written communications for some families, as word of mouth may be a preferred method of receiving information.
Values and Attitudes
_____ I understand and accept that family is defined differently by different cultures (e.g., extended family members, fictive kin, godparents).
_____ I recognize and accept that individuals from culturally diverse backgrounds may desire varying degrees of acculturation into the dominant culture.
_____ I accept and respect that male-female roles in families may vary significantly among different cultures (e.g., who makes major decisions for the family, play and social interactions expected of male and female children).
_____ I understand that age and life-cycle factors must be considered in interactions with individuals and families (e.g., high value placed on the decisions of elders or the role of the eldest male in families).
_____ I understand that families from different cultures will have different expectations of their children for acquiring toileting, dressing, feeding, and other self-help skills.
_____ I accept and respect that customs and beliefs about food and its value, preparation, and use are different from culture to culture.
This checklist is intended to heighten the awareness and sensitivity of personnel to the importance of cultural diversity and cultural competence in human service settings. It provides concrete examples of the kinds of values and practices that foster such an environment. There are no correct responses. However, if you frequently responded C, you may not necessarily demonstrate values and engage in practices that promote a culturally diverse and culturally competent service-delivery system for children with disabilities or special health care needs and their families.
Source: Selected items from Goode (2004).
By meeting a few students through brief snapshots, we have seen that no two students are alike. In fact, each student has unique skills, knowledge, abilities, gifts—and needs. Understanding the characteristics of the learner is one of the cornerstones for building successful teaching and learning experiences. In
Chapter 4
we see how special educators develop partnerships with others as school teams collaborate to assist students.
Summary
• Students with emotional disturbance exhibit specific characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affect their educational performances. Many factors contribute to causes of emotional or behavioral problems, such as biological, educational, economic, familial, learning, psychological, and societal factors.
• Students with mental retardation show evidence of limited intellectual functioning and deficits in adaptive behavior. Causes of mental retardation include chromosomal disorders, societal problems, or difficulties during pregnancy and the birth process.
• Students with autism spectrum disorders demonstrate developmental disabilities that significantly affect verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction. These spectrum disorders may be caused by one or more factors; however, brain-based research indicates that there are anatomical differences in the structure or function of the brain.
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
Describe problem and challenging behaviors.
Compare and contrast various approaches to assessing problem and challenging behaviors.
Discuss planning and implementing instruction that matches student needs in promoting positive behaviors.
Describe how educators can strengthen school and community capacity to promote positive behaviors.
Promoting positive behaviors often involves working with students with severe and persistent behavior challenges who typically have limited academic success, lack of interest in school-related activities, and attendance difficulties (
Scanlon & Mellard, 2002
). Although these students may be creative and articulate, they are at risk for dropping out of school. This chapter focuses on understanding behaviors and learning more about assessing, planning, and implementing effective instruction to promote positive behaviors.
Students with problem behaviors do not fit into any one category. Rather, they exhibit a wide variety of behaviors, from extremely aggressive and oppositional to extremely withdrawn and anxious. Aggressive behaviors may involve acts against other individuals, such as fighting, coercion, bullying, negative interactions, and manipulation. Oppositional behaviors include noncompliance and defiance. Students may engage in stealing, lying, drug or alcohol use, and other risky behaviors.
In the classroom, students with antisocial behaviors are often the first ones recognized to have problem behaviors (
Figure 10.1
). In contrast, students with severe and persistent behavior problems may exhibit forms of behavior not necessarily disruptive to the classroom but definitely disruptive to the student’s learning and academic progress. Classroom observations may indicate that a student is extremely withdrawn, rarely interacting with others or that another student is very anxious, showing extreme reactions to minor everyday events.
Students who carry psychiatric diagnoses in addition to the educational label of emotional disturbance may have a form of mental illness such as depression. This condition often makes it difficult to come to school or to stay the entire school day.
Figure 10.1 What we know about students with antisocial behaviors
Source: Adapted from “Preventing Problems by Improving Behavior,” by
D. M.
Kamps, 2002
, in Preventing Problem Behaviors, p. 12 (B. Algozzine and P. Kay, Eds.), Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Lack of physical strength and a feeling of hopelessness often prevent students from working cooperatively with others or completing individual assignments.
Severe behavior problems are not limited to students with a diagnosis of emotional disturbance. Students with other disabilities, such as learning disabilities, mental retardation, or autism, may have compounding disabilities that include challenging or problem behaviors that persist over time. Whatever diagnoses these students carry, they probably lack many of the basic social skills discussed in
Chapter 9
, in addition to having problem behaviors. They may have limited insight into the feelings of other students or adults. Teachers working with students with severe and persistent problem behaviors find that each student is unique. These teachers must work with other professionals to gather information about the student’s behaviors and to develop a behavior plan that meets the student’s unique needs.
Snapshot: Sandy Stream
Troy Donahue, who recently graduated from college, took his first job in a public school as a case manager and behavior specialist at Sandy Stream Middle School. His responsibilities include working closely with the general education teachers to support students with challenging behaviors in the classroom. This morning he is meeting with the A team, one of two groups of sixth-grade teachers who are responsible for a group of 35 students. Several of the teachers have questions about some of the students. The team leader, an experienced middle school educator, facilitates the meeting.
The math teacher begins, “I am having some problems with Thomas Jones. He is so aggressive and disruptive in class, making strange noises and yelling out obscenities. At first I tried ignoring his behavior, but of course the other students react and then I just lose the entire class.” Another teacher agreed with this account and voiced additional concerns about the student’s identified learning disability and his difficulty with reading content material.
Troy knew that the disruptive behavior described by the teachers could be motivated by a number of reasons, including Thomas’s wish to escape the situation or his wish for peer attention. As the discussion continued, Troy shared his knowledge about student-motivated behavior and ways to assess behaviors through classroom observation.
10.1 Understanding Problem and Challenging Behaviors
Students with problem behaviors do not fit into any one category. Rather, they exhibit a wide variety of behaviors, from extremely aggressive and oppositional to extremely withdrawn and anxious. Aggressive behaviors may involve acts against other individuals, such as fighting, coercion, bullying, negative interactions, and manipulation. Oppositional behaviors include noncompliance and defiance. Students may engage in stealing, lying, drug or alcohol use, and other risky behaviors.
In the classroom, students with antisocial behaviors are often the first ones recognized to have problem behaviors (Figure 10.1). In contrast, students with severe and persistent behavior problems may exhibit forms of behavior not necessarily disruptive to the classroom but definitely disruptive to the student’s learning and academic progress. Classroom observations may indicate that a student is extremely withdrawn, rarely interacting with others or that another student is very anxious, showing extreme reactions to minor everyday events.
Students who carry psychiatric diagnoses in addition to the educational label of emotional disturbance may have a form of mental illness such as depression. This condition often makes it difficult to come to school or to stay the entire school day.
Figure 10.1 What we know about students with antisocial behaviors
Source: Adapted from “Preventing Problems by Improving Behavior,” by
D. M. Kamps, 2002
, in Preventing Problem Behaviors, p. 12 (B. Algozzine and P. Kay, Eds.), Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Lack of physical strength and a feeling of hopelessness often prevent students from working cooperatively with others or completing individual assignments.
Severe behavior problems are not limited to students with a diagnosis of emotional disturbance. Students with other disabilities, such as learning disabilities, mental retardation, or autism, may have compounding disabilities that include challenging or problem behaviors that persist over time. Whatever diagnoses these students carry, they probably lack many of the basic social skills discussed in Chapter 9, in addition to having problem behaviors. They may have limited insight into the feelings of other students or adults. Teachers working with students with severe and persistent problem behaviors find that each student is unique. These teachers must work with other professionals to gather information about the student’s behaviors and to develop a behavior plan that meets the student’s unique needs.
Snapshot: Sandy Stream Middle School
Troy Donahue, who recently graduated from college, took his first job in a public school as a case manager and behavior specialist at Sandy Stream Middle School. His responsibilities include working closely with the general education teachers to support students with challenging behaviors in the classroom. This morning he is meeting with the A team, one of two groups of sixth-grade teachers who are responsible for a group of 35 students. Several of the teachers have questions about some of the students. The team leader, an experienced middle school educator, facilitates the meeting.
The math teacher begins, “I am having some problems with Thomas Jones. He is so aggressive and disruptive in class, making strange noises and yelling out obscenities. At first I tried ignoring his behavior, but of course the other students react and then I just lose the entire class.” Another teacher agreed with this account and voiced additional concerns about the student’s identified learning disability and his difficulty with reading content material.
Troy knew that the disruptive behavior described by the teachers could be motivated by a number of reasons, including Thomas’s wish to escape the situation or his wish for peer attention. As the discussion continued, Troy shared his knowledge about student-motivated behavior and ways to assess behaviors through classroom observation.
IDEA requires IEP team members to address behavioral as well as learning problems, not only for students with emotional disturbance but also for all students with disabilities. When students have behavioral problems, the IEP team must conduct a functional behavioral assessment, including one or more assessment approaches that focus on identifying the biological, social, affective, and environmental factors that initiate, sustain, or end the behavior in question. Based on the functional behavioral assessment, team members then develop a behavioral intervention plan that describes the skills that students need, the instruction that will be provided, and how the plan will be evaluated.
Educators use a functional behavioral assessment (
Crone & Horner, 2003
) to examine student behavior and to assist in identifying its function, or what the student obtains or is able to avoid as a result of the behavior. More specifically, a
functional behavioral assessment
consists of assessment approaches that focus on identifying social, affective, cognitive, and/or environmental factors that are student specific and are associated with the occurrence (or nonoccurrence) of specific behaviors (Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 2001). In a review of the research, Choi and Kim (1998) provide compelling evidence of the effectiveness of functional behavioral assessment of students with problem behaviors. Other studies indicate the effectiveness of interventions derived from functional behavioral assessment (
Stage, Jackson, & Moscovitz, 2006
;
Wright-Gallo, Higbee, & Reagon, 2006
) and positive outcomes over time (
Kern, Gallagher, Starosta, Hickman, & George, 2006
).
Information collected during this assessment helps the special educator and other members of the IEP team plan intervention and positive behavioral supports that will be written into the student’s behavior intervention plan. The behavior intervention plan describes the skills that students need, the instruction that will be provided, and how the plan will be evaluated (
Cohen & Spenciner, 2007
).
IDEA requires that the IEP team meet to formulate a functional behavioral assessment and to develop a behavioral intervention plan within 10 days of a disciplinary action by school personnel for behavior such as carrying a gun to school or possessing illegal drugs [34 CFR 300.530(f)] [20 U.S.C. 1415(k)(1)(F)]. If the student already has a behavioral intervention plan, the team must review and revise it as necessary to ensure that it addresses the problem behavior(s) on which the disciplinary action focused.
The first step in planning a functional behavioral assessment is identifying the problem behavior in terms that are concrete and observable. For example, a classroom teacher describes the behavior of a student named Thomas as “aggressive and disruptive.” The special educator has to define the behavior in more objective terms so that people can measure and record it. A description such as “Thomas is aggressive and disruptive” is too vague and does not state the nature of the problem behavior or where it occurs.
Figure 10.2
Is the problem behavior linked to a skill need?
Source: From Addressing Student Problem Behavior,
Part I
: An IEP Team’s Introduction to Functional Behavioral Assessment and Behavior Intervention Plans (p. 5), Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 1998, Washington, DC: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice.
“Thomas threw a book, knocked over his desk, kicked it, and yelled obscenities at the teacher and other students” is specific, is objective, and describes his behavior in terms that everyone can observe. The description also identifies the context in which the educator observed the behavior.
During the meeting, IEP team members consider the function of the behavior for the student. Does the student understand the behavioral expectations? If not, the behavior may be linked to a skill need (Figure 10.2). Is the student trying to avoid a demanding task? If so, then the student may have the skill but lacks motivation to modify the behavior (
Figure 10.3
).
A functional behavioral assessment uses multiple assessment approaches, including observations, record reviews, interviews, and standardized instruments.
Figure 10.3 Does the student have the skill but not the desire to modify the behavior?
Source: From Addressing Student Problem Behavior,
Part I
: An IEP Team’s Introduction to Functional Behavioral Assessment and Behavior Intervention Plans (p. 6), Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 1998, Washington, DC: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice.
Educators and other team members can conduct observations of the student in the classroom, in the cafeteria, or in other school settings. This involves observing and recording not only the student’s behavior but also situational factors associated with the behavior. The observer notes events that occurred just before the behavior and the consequences that followed the behavior.
Figure 10.4
illustrates an observation form used to collect this type of information. The teacher conducted the observation during lunch in the school cafeteria. We’ll learn more about how this observation helped in planning for the student later in this chapter. Conducting multiple observations over a period of several days helps ensure that the information is consistent and reliable.
Figure 10.4 Observation form for functional behavioral assessment
The teacher also examines a student’s records. A review of past academic work and disciplinary reports indicates when difficulties occurred and the types of interventions that the teacher tried. Attendance records provide information about the number of days absent or tardy and patterns of truancy. The student’s health history provides information regarding conditions that may require medical attention or prescription drugs. The IEP team will need to know about any medical conditions that impact the student’s behavior. Medical information about Thomas’s condition was of critical importance. When Troy Donahue reviewed his school records, he discovered a note that Thomas had recently been diagnosed with Tourette’s syndrome. Troy knew that one of the characteristics of this syndrome is uncontrollable verbal outbursts.
Structured interviews
consist of a set of questions that the educator or another professional considers and plans before meeting with an individual. Interviews provide unique information from each individual’s perspective. Parents can provide information about the student’s behavior at home with siblings and friends. A school social worker can describe the student’s behavior in small-group interactions. Classroom teachers can describe settings in which the behavior does and does not occur. The student can provide a unique perspective, too. For example, the special educator might conduct an interview with Thomas with questions such as, What happened to you to make you feel so angry?
Commercial behavior checklists and rating scales provide standardized measures for collecting information. Usually the teacher, parent, and student complete similar instruments. Sometimes a student’s peers complete them as well. This information provides different evaluations of the student’s behavior at home and at school. The examiner can test different diagnostic hypotheses to determine the settings in which behavior problems occur and how serious the behavior is perceived to be by individuals close to the student.
Team members meet to compare and analyze the assessment information. Are there any patterns associated with the behavior? For example, does Thomas resort to throwing materials and shouting obscenities when he is frustrated and unable to complete his assignments? How does his medical condition of Tourette’s syndrome affect his behavior? (Behaviors associated with Tourette’s syndrome cause Thomas to vocalize and curse at unexpected times during class and display distracting head jerks.) If the team cannot determine any patterns of behavior, it reviews the approaches used to gather the information and identifies additional ways of assessing the behavior.
A Special educator teaches replacement behaviors that serve the same function as the inappropriate behavior.
Once a pattern of behavior emerges, the team establishes a
hypothesis
, which describes the probable function(s) of the behavior and allows the team to predict antecedent conditions or when the behavior is most likely (and least likely) to occur and the probable consequences that serve to maintain the behavior. For example, Thomas’s IEP team hypothesized that his behavior was caused by academic frustration and social ridicule by his classmates. To learn more about conducting a functional behavioral analysis and the process of hypothesis generation, refer to the Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice’s Web site. In addition to providing extensive information, the site has examples of useful forms for IEP teams to use in conducting a functional behavioral assessment and developing a behavioral intervention plan.
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Once the IEP team has completed the functional behavioral assessment and developed a hypothesis concerning the behavior, team members develop (or revise) the student’s
behavioral intervention plan
. The plan addresses the function of the problem behavior by teaching the student more acceptable behaviors that address the motivation behind the behavior. Developed by the IEP team, this intervention plan describes the skills that students need, the instruction that will be provided, and how the plan will be evaluated. Researchers have found that a functional behavioral assessment and a behavioral intervention plan help students improve their behavior and prevent more serious behaviors (
Ingram, 2003
;
Kamps et al., 1995
;
Scott, Liaupsin, Nelson, & Jolivette, 2003
).
Figure 10.5
Considerations for designing behavioral intervention plans
Source: Addressing Student Problem Behavior,
Part III
: Creating Positive Intervention Plans and Supports (p. 6),
Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 2000
, Washington, DC: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice.
Planning the behavioral intervention involves team members working together (Figure 10.5). Based on the information collected during the functional behavioral assessment, the plan
• addresses the student’s skill needs and/or performance needs;
• includes positive strategies;
• describes any classroom environment accommodations;
• describes any program accommodations or modifications;
• describes any curricular accommodations or modifications;
• describes supplementary aids and supports; and
• includes a crisis/emergency plan, if necessary.
Addressing Skills That Students Need.
Students with behavioral problems often lack skills in communicating effectively with others, such as reading and interpreting body language and controlling anger and disappointment. To address students’ skill needs, the special educator may need to teach social skills, positive behavioral skills, and academic skills.
The behavioral intervention plan (
Figure 10.6
) includes a description of the problem behavior so that team members will recognize its onset. If the student lacks specific skills, the plan describes these skills and/or
replacement behaviors
that must be substituted for inappropriate behaviors. The plan describes specific goals and objectives for obtaining new skills and replacement behaviors and instructional procedures that teachers will use. For example, Thomas’s plan states that he will work with the behavior specialist to verbally identify and describe the physical signs that he experiences when he is becoming angry. In time he will learn to recognize when he is becoming angry and seek assistance rather than acting out. The behavior specialist will also teach Thomas replacement behaviors in role-playing situations. If a teacher makes changes in the physical environment, these are described in the plan. Finally, the plan specifies how instruction will be implemented in various settings and the persons responsible. Educators report that teaching positive behavior strategies as part of the regular academic program is particularly effective in teaching replacement behaviors (Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 2000).
Figure 10.6 Thomas’s behavioral intervention plan
Source: Addressing Student Problem Behavior,
Part III
: Creating Positive Intervention Plans and Supports (pp. B5–B10), Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 2000, Washington, DC: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice.
After completing all the components of the behavioral intervention plan, the IEP team describes how the plan will be evaluated. Team members describe how, when, where, and how often they will measure the problem behaviors and identify individuals who will be responsible for the evaluation. They determine a schedule for reviewing or modifying the plan based on the criteria for behavior change.
The IEP team also identifies
supports
, or people and/or modifications to the environment that will assist the student to be educated with students without disabilities to the maximum extent appropriate. Students such as Thomas may need supports, as seen in Figure 10.6, such as a classroom modification and an individual with similar disabilities from the community who can provide mentoring, added to the behavioral intervention plan. Personnel supports can include the school guidance counselor, school social worker, or psychologist who works with the student to improve behavior. Or a student might work with the school mechanic, custodian, or secretary for a class period when the student needs to avoid a structured learning environment such as the classroom. The parent can provide support by assisting the student in organizing school materials and constructing a schedule for after-school activities, including homework. Other students can provide supports, too. For example, the special education teacher made arrangements with a high school student who had similar interests to meet with Thomas on a weekly basis to provide academic encouragement.
Supports can also include modifications to the environment. For example, a teacher might rearrange the room to provide more space for small-group projects. A counter along the back wall could be cleared to allow a student to complete individual assignments while standing at the counter instead of seated at a desk.
The IEP team reviews and evaluates the behavioral intervention plan during the annual meeting, but members may review the plan more frequently if necessary. If the student has met the behavioral goals and objectives, the plan should be revised to include the new goals and objectives. If the plan does not seem to be effective and there is little change in the student’s behavior, team members need to review the plan, decide whether to conduct further assessment, and develop a new plan that will produce positive changes in behavior.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
Creating Relevant Educational Experiences
Behavioral expectations are an integral aspect of the culture that surrounds us. Some families may expect children to respect and not question authority figures, whereas others encourage children to be assertive and “speak up” to make their opinions and wishes known. Thus, for some students, the culture of the school, home, and community all hold similar behavioral expectations, but other students find a marked contrast in cultural expectations as they move from home to school to “hanging out” in their neighborhoods.
The factors in schools that exacerbate inequities include curriculum and pedagogy (
Nieto, 2000
), as well as behavioral expectations and communication styles. Teachers can work to create culturally responsive educational experiences by building on students’ interests while providing high-quality academic instruction. Educators search out and provide information related to students’ lives and place instructional information in a context that is familiar to students. They respect and model an appreciation of individual differences and similarities and provide students with positive examples of role models. The Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence is an excellent resource that assists teachers in responding to classroom diversity. Their Web site includes research findings and standards for pedagogy.
Questions for Reflection
1. Explore the Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence Web site. What information regarding culturally relevant education did you find most helpful?
2. Consider the home culture of a student with whom you have worked. What instructional activities would you create to provide a relevant learning experience for the student?
3. WebQuests, inquiry-oriented activities in which students use Web-based information, often build on students’ interests while providing high-quality academic instruction. Describe the qualities you might find in a WebQuest that would create a relevant learning experience for students with whom you have worked.
Setting events
affect the physical or emotional state of a student at any given time and play a major role in the classroom each day (
Gable, Hendrickson, Tonelson, & Van Acker, 2002
;
Horner, Vaughn, Day, & Ard, 1996
;
Moss et al. 2005
;
Wahler & Graves, 1983
). A student who has an argument with another student on the bus begins the day in a different emotional state than on another day, when a friend invites the student to share a seat. Another student who had little sleep the night before arrives in a different physical state than when her or she is well rested. These events not only influence a student’s behavior and alter the effects of reinforcement that are part of the student’s IEP but can also produce particular behaviors that may go unnoticed unless the educator looks beyond the events immediately preceding problem behaviors (
Horner et al., 1996
).
Figure 10.7
illustrates the effects of different setting events on the behavior of a student. Usually teacher praise carries high value for this student, but because of his earlier fighting (setting event 1) or his headache (setting event 3), the value of teacher praise is reduced.
Figure 10.7 Effects of setting events on problem behaviors
Source: Adapted from “The Relationship Between Setting Events and Problem Behavior: Expanding Our Understanding of Behavioral Support,” by R. H. Horner, B. J. Vaughn, H. M. Day, and W. R. Ard, 1996, in Positive Behavioral Support: Including People with Difficult Behavior in the Community, p. 383 (L. K. Koegel, R. L. Koegel, and G. Dunlap, Eds.), Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Students with behavior problems often engage in inappropriate behavior because they consider this behavior more desirable or acceptable than the appropriate behavior. The student may not be motivated or may not see any value in the appropriate behavior. Kamps (2002) identifies a number of possible teacher interventions, depending on a student’s motivation for engaging in problem behaviors, including
• attention-motivated behavior;
• escape-motivated behavior;
• access/control-motivated behavior; and
• sensory/stimulation-motivated behavior.
1.
Attention-Motivated Behavior.
Begin by teaching appropriate attention-seeking behaviors. For example, when a student is seeking another person’s attention, an educator teaches the student to say the person’s name once and wait for the person to look at or acknowledge the student. The educator allows the student a limited number of requests for attention in each class period and keeps a visual tally of the requests, using praise when the student demonstrates the positive behavior. During class, the teacher also uses specific praise and privileges for peers who model appropriate attention-seeking behavior. The teacher avoids verbal reprimands and, only as a last resort, uses timeout.
Timeout
is a procedure whereby a student is removed from the group or activity and placed in a neutral setting for a specified period of time.
Timeout should be used sparingly for short “cool-down” periods. For example, a teacher may place a student in timeout when the student engages in violent behavior. Because timeout helps protect the safety of the student and other students, it is a helpful procedure; however, when a student is in timeout, valuable classroom learning time is lost. A student should be placed in timeout for only a few minutes.
2.
Escape-Motivated Behavior.
The teacher may begin by reviewing current classroom practices and evaluating learning activities to make sure that students have multiple opportunities for hands-on activities. The teacher structures lessons and learning activities so that easier activities are interspersed with more difficult tasks. Students are given opportunities to choose the order in which the learning activities will be completed, and the teacher provides written examples, or exemplars, of well-done activities or tasks.
The teacher encourages students to ask for help in an appropriate manner during the instructional lesson and learning activities and always responds to these requests. The teacher provides additional assistance to the student and monitors the student’s performance frequently. By reinforcing the student’s on-task behavior at 3- to 5-minute intervals, the teacher helps the student increase self-management. The teacher does not use timeout because this only serves to reinforce the student’s escape-motivated behavior.
3.
Access/Control-Motivated Behavior.
Educators begin by teaching the student acceptable ways to interact with others and request access to materials or an activity. Students also learn how to manage disappointment and anger. To control student behavior, teachers may use
contingency statements
, which include the condition that the student must satisfy before engaging in a desired behavior. For example, a teacher announces, “After all the materials are put away, you may have the remaining time to check your e-mail or listen to music. We have 10 minutes before we need to get ready to go home.”
4.
Sensory/Stimulation-Motivated Behavior.
IEP team members and other professional consultants decide whether to ignore the behavior if it does not disrupt the student’s learning or the learning of others. For behaviors that do interfere with learning, teachers interrupt and redirect them. For example, Luis constantly clicked his pen—off-on, off-on. His teacher provided a Koosh ball that allowed him the needed sensory stimulation but was not distracting to others.
In Chapter 9 we learned how students in one high school use Palm handhelds (PDAs) as AT to improve their academic work. PDAs also increase opportunities for students to assume ownership in improving their behaviors. When a student begins working on positive behaviors, a PDA provides an easy, efficient way to record behaviors and monitor daily progress. As part of the behavior support plan, the teacher—or student—sets up a file, perhaps in a word-processing or spreadsheet format on the classroom computer, and then downloads the file to a PDA. The student uses the system to record and manage positive behaviors. Aside from the advantages of having a “cool tool,” a student can use the PDA at any time during the day, while going to different classes, in the cafeteria, or on the bus. The PDA eliminates the problem of lost pencils or missing paper recording sheets. At the beginning of each school day, the student uploads the data to the classroom computer, where it can be added to a weekly chart.
Gradually, the student assumes more and more responsibility for managing behavior by learning new skills, replacement behaviors, and self-management strategies. The following sections describe how teachers structure positive classroom environments, provide clear expectations, and teach compliance, conflict resolution, and mediation.
Supporting students with severe, persistent behavior problems requires a high level of self-awareness on the part of teachers. Teachers are realistic about their capabilities and know when to request assistance from other team members, such as other teachers, the school social worker or school psychologist, or the building administrator.
In planning instructional activities, teachers are mindful of sources of frustration for students, such as boredom, an irrelevant curriculum, and disorganized learning activities (
Fitzsimmons, 1998
). Teachers recognize and respond to various stages of student frustration (
Figure 10.8
).
Figure 10.8 The stages of frustration and examples of appropriate teacher responses
Source: Adapted from Violence and Aggression in Children and Youth, by M. K. Fitzsimmons, 1998, Reston, VA: ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education.
Teachers work to create structured and consistent, yet nurturing and caring environments, establishing trust and rapport with and among students. They hold high expectations for all students and provide high-quality academic instruction in which students are actively engaged. Teachers work to make learning fun and induce a positive mood. For example, at the beginning of the day the teacher might do the following:
• Ask students to create three goals that they would like to achieve during the day.
• Select an inspiring video segment to view and briefly discuss.
Educators can provide many opportunities throughout the day for students to make choices as they complete learning activities and assignments and strengthen appropriate behaviors. Students can choose where to sit during individual or small-group work—or where to stand. They can choose the order in which they will complete two or more assignments or which part of an assignment to complete, such as all the even-numbered items or all the odd-numbered ones. They can also choose which questions of a set to answer or how to demonstrate their achievement from among a list of possibilities.
An emerging area of research indicates that when educators include opportunities for students to make choices during academic instruction, positive results occur. Reviews of the literature found that when students were allowed to choose the task, their accuracy and completion of academic assignments increased and disruptive behaviors decreased (
Jolivette, Stichter, & McCormick, 2002
;
Morgan, 2006
;
Shogren, Faggella-Luby, Bae, & Wehmeyer, 2004
).
Effective approaches for promoting positive behavior begin with preventive measures for minimizing discipline problems. Educators communicate clear expectations for student behavior and provide positive and corrective feedback, and students learn to monitor their own behaviors and evaluate their progress. Teachers ensure that students are treated fairly and consistently. This section discusses establishing rules, identifying procedures, and teaching compliance.
Special educators, in collaboration with students, construct classroom rules, usually written statements, that describe student behavioral expectations. Through words and/or pictures, the rules illustrate what students should do, rather than not do, and are written in positive terms. When teachers involve students in developing a set of classroom rules, everyone accepts ownership of the rules. In addition, students are more likely to follow the rules and to help reinforce them with others. Classroom rules are more effective when they are developed at the beginning of the school year. The teacher keeps the list of rules relatively short—no more than five or six—and posts them in a highly visible place. The teacher begins by demonstrating (or inviting students to demonstrate) each of the rules and then reviews and refers to them frequently. The teacher is careful to consistently reinforce the classroom rules daily. Sometimes teachers must review classroom rules at the beginning of the school day and reteach them to the group or to individual students as necessary. Martin and Pear (2002, p. 212) define effective rules as rules that describe deadlines for specific behavior, even when the outcomes are delayed.
One first-grade class and their teacher developed the following set of rules and posted them at the front of the classroom for all to see.
In Our Classroom, We
• use quiet voices;
• wear our walking shoes;
• put on our listening ears; and
• keep our hands and feet to ourselves.
Teachers must follow through with consequences when a student does not follow the rules. A consequence may influence whether or how frequently the behavior occurs again. Students need to understand that there are consequences when they do not follow classroom rules. Teachers should post consequences in a visible place as a reminder.
A fifth-grade teacher posted these consequences on the classroom wall.
What Happens if I Don’t Follow the Rules:
• First time, a teacher or student reminds me.
• Second time, I receive a check mark by my name.
• Third time, I miss recess.
• Fourth time, a message is sent to my parents.
When students have difficulty following rules, teachers can help them learn to monitor their own behaviors. By using a checklist (
Figure 10.9
), students can observe their own behaviors, record them, and evaluate them. Self-monitoring helps students internalize their positive behaviors, and recording sheets or checklists provide a visual reminder of what is expected of them (
Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 1999
).
Figure 10.9 Teacher-designed self-monitoring card for students
Sometimes people confuse classroom rules with classroom procedures.
Classroom procedures
describe the steps or components of daily activities that must be followed to complete tasks. For example, a first-grade teacher posts the following classroom procedures on the bathroom wall:
• Please flush the toilet.
• Wash your hands with soap and warm water.
• Turn off the light.
A middle school teacher lists the following procedures on the classroom’s Web page regarding homework assignments:
• Carefully read the directions before beginning the assignment.
• Use a spell-checker after you complete your draft.
• Pass in your paper or send it as an attached file to your teacher on Friday.
Teachers who use positive behavioral supports and develop learning activities that actively engage students provide an atmosphere conducive to student learning. In the following section, we examine several instructional strategies that special educators use to support and promote positive behavior in the classroom. After all, high academic expectations and active student engagement complement good classroom support. Students who are actively engaged in learning display positive classroom behaviors and a marked decrease in problem behaviors, whereas inappropriate teaching methods can exacerbate behavior problems in the classroom.
One teaching method that has broad research support for its use and effectiveness with students who have learning and behavior problems is direct instruction, which you read about in Chapter 6. Teachers using direct instruction can include instructional strategies that support a high level of student involvement as well as frequent and immediate feedback, such as choral responding, response cards, and guided notes.
Choral responding requires students to respond as a group, either aloud or electronically with a hand-held clicker, to the teacher’s questions. For example, an elementary resource room teacher using choral responding asks the reading group, “What sound do you hear at the beginning of the word pumpkin?” Each child replies “puh.” By scanning the group, the teacher can monitor the children’s answers. A student who doesn’t know the answer hears the correct response. The teacher may say, “Tell me one more time.” All students can respond again, including the students who didn’t know the answer.
In an inclusive secondary classroom, the teacher uses computer technology to increase student participation. Each student uses a handheld clicker to indicate his or her choice of an answer in response to the teacher’s questions. The data projector displays the responses anonymously on the screen for all to see. This provides a quick way to assess student understanding of information without embarrassment.
Like choral responding, individual whiteboards or response cards actively involve students. Each student uses the board to indicate the answer to a teacher’s question. Response cards can be as simple as color-coded yes-or-no cards. The teacher might use these cards during shared-book time to provide an opportunity for each child to predict what will happen next as the children listen to a story. “Do you think that Heather will go down into the cave?” The children decide by holding up a yes or a no response card.
The teacher can use paper, cut in 3-inch by 5-inch pieces, to provide each student with a set of blank response cards. Students can write their answers on the cards and hold them up in response to the teacher’s questions. Or, students can use individual, wipeable whiteboards with markers.
Research findings support the use of response cards for increasing academic achievement in both elementary and secondary students with disabilities. In a meta-analysis of 18 studies, Randolph (2007) found that the use of response cards was more effective for students than hand raising in terms of test achievement, participation, and reduction of disruptive behavior.
Teachers who used whiteboards to encourage class participation during mathematics instruction found that the frequency of active student response was greater and there were less disruptive behaviors than when students were asked only to raise their hands to participate (
Lambert, Cartledge, Heward, & Lo, 2006
). Other researches, who found similar results when using response cards, further noted an increase in math quiz scores (Christle & Schuster, 2003).
To help students become more actively involved in lesson activities, a middle school or high school special educator can prepare guided notes that outline the lesson material. The guided notes can include new vocabulary words, important dates, and the key ideas that the teacher wants the students to know. The teacher distributes a copy of the guided notes to each student prior to the lesson, either through e-mail or as a hard-copy handout. During the lesson, students complete the outline provided in the guided notes by listening carefully to the lecture and writing down the information.
Research studies indicated that the use of guided notes improved academic achievement for adolescents with learning and behavior problems (
Hamilton, Seibert, Gardner, & Talbert-Johnson, 2000
; Lazarus, 1991,
1993
; Sweeney et al., 1999). Furthermore, students reported that they preferred using guided notes rather than their own notes (Hamilton et al.; Sweeney et al.).
Teachers expect students to follow requests, directions, and classroom rules as they build affective and academic skills. Many students with severe, persistent emotional and behavioral problems demonstrate oppositional, defiant, and noncompliant behaviors. To begin to increase student compliance, a teacher can stand next to the student and state the request in a normal, unemotional voice, allowing a few seconds for compliance to begin and praising the compliant behavior (Kamps, 2002).
Successful teachers use consistent procedures and carry out the teaching strategy firmly and with confidence. Sometimes teachers inadvertently reinforce noncompliant behavior by (a) asking a student repeatedly to complete a request (thus teaching that the student doesn’t have to follow the direction the first time the teacher asks) or (b) allowing a student to negotiate delaying compliance (no consequence for continuing to play music even though class has begun; adapted from Kamps, 2002, p. 16).
Because noncompliance may be a well-learned problem behavior, special educators often need to use specific teaching strategies, such as precision requests (
De Martini-Scully, Bray, & Kehle, 2000
;
Musser, Bray, Kehle, & Jenson, 2001
), precorrection (
Yu, Darch, & Rabren, 2002
), differential attention (
Young & Wasserman, 2002
), behavioral momentum (
Calderhead, Filter, & Albin, 2006
;
Lee, 2006
), and compliance games (Sheridan, 1995–2000).
Kamps (cited in Algozzine & Kay, 2002) provides descriptions of these strategies, which are summarized here.
Precision requests
are intentional ways that teachers present a request that will maximize student compliance. Here are the steps that a special educator follows:
1. The teacher explains the request and consequences simply and clearly.
2. The teacher uses eye contact and says please.
3. The teacher waits 5 to 10 seconds for the student to comply.
4. If the student does not comply, the teacher makes a second request, “I need you to … please.”
5. If the student still does not comply, then the teacher issues the preplanned consequence.
Precorrection
consists of instruction in appropriate behaviors and reminders before the students need to use the behaviors in context. Here are the steps that a special educator follows:
1. The teacher identifies the context and the predictable problem behavior.
2. The teacher specifies the expected behavior.
3. The teacher arranges the practice setting.
A special educator uses precorrection to promote positive behavior.
4. The teacher and student rehearse the expected behavior.
5. The teacher provides strong reinforcement.
6. The teacher prompts expected behaviors.
7. The teacher monitors the expected behavior in the natural setting and context.
Differential attention
is ignoring behaviors that tend to be attention seeking, reinforcing alternative or appropriate behaviors. Here are the steps that a special educator follows:
1. The teacher ignores inappropriate behavior (breaks eye contact, does not speak to student, walks away, or engages with an appropriate student).
2. The teacher looks for opportunities to pay attention to appropriate behavior as soon as possible following misbehavior.
3. The teacher rewards appropriate behavior at a high rate.
Behavioral momentum
involves requesting two or three easy behaviors immediately prior to a difficult request in order to increase compliance. Here is how the special educator plans this strategy: The teacher identifies multiple requests that student is highly likely to follow.
IN PRACTICE
Special educators who teach students with behavioral and emotional problems must address both academic and behavioral concerns. Sometimes a student’s condition prevents the student from attending classes on a regular basis, perhaps due to the need for hospitalization or specialized treatment for an acute episode. Lack of regular attendance often adversely affects a student’s academic program and, in turn, his or her motivation, self-concept, and self-esteem. Students with challenging and problem behaviors, like students with other disabilities, require highly trained special educators who demonstrate (a) sensitivity to individual needs, (b) knowledge and skills in designing and implementing appropriate instruction, and (c) high ethical standards.
Classroom Focus
Jeremiah is a ninth-grade student who has attended specialized schools for several years, where he could receive intensive counseling and therapy for antisocial behaviors and anger management. After demonstrating improved performance, he transferred back to his community school. Jeremiah is eligible for special education under the category of ED (emotional disturbance). Although Jeremiah scores within the average range on intelligence tests, he is substantially below grade level on standardized achievement tests in English, mathematics, social studies, and science. Jeremiah still demonstrates difficulty in cooperating with peers for any extended period of time because of a quick temper and limited social skills. When he becomes argumentative and his behaviors begin to escalate, the classroom teacher sends him to the principal’s office.
Working Toward Solutions
Levi Jacobs, Jeremiah’s special educator, discusses her work with Jeremiah, “The IEP team developed a new plan for Jeremiah. As part of the plan, I am working closely with the classroom teacher to increase positive behaviors. Last week, in talking with Jeremiah, I learned that he loves to solve math puzzles. So each day one of us teachers puts a new visual puzzle on the board. He seems to be very motivated to be the first student in the group to solve the puzzle.”
Levi continues, “We plan to use his interest with puzzles to introduce him to a small-group project with his peers. As part of a geometry unit, students will be designing and making their own puzzles. During the free period at the end of the school day, Jeremiah will meet with me for individualized instruction and simulated practice in working with a small group of peers. At the same time, I will introduce strategies that he can use to remove himself from a frustrating situation before an outburst.”
What the Research Says
According to the National Longitudinal Transition Study—2 (2006), teachers report that most students with disabilities in Grades 7–12 control their behavior well (46%) or very well (33%). The remaining group, or approximately 21% of students with disabilities, engages in problem behaviors in the classroom. These behaviors involve primarily arguing and fighting.
Teachers report that students were primarily disciplined with in-school rather than out-of-school suspensions. When examined by gender, researchers found interesting demographic differences. Although both boys and girls were reported to argue and fight about equally, teachers reported almost twice as many disciplinary actions for boys.
MyEducationLab: Your Turn
How might you minimize behavior problems in your classroom? What precautions might you take to ensure fair and equitable treatment of students by gender and by race? What might you do differently if you were working with older students rather than younger students? To explore these questions further, go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. Then watch the videos entitled “Managing Behavior: Preschool” and “Teacher Praise” and then share your ideas with other members of the class.
Next, explore other ways to promote positive behaviors in the classroom and some of the controversies related to working with students with behavioral and emotional problems. Read the articles entitled “A Profile of Bullying at School” and “Discipline and the Special Education Student” and be prepared to discuss the key concepts of the articles with your peers.
Compliance games
include reinforcement systems designed to reward student compliance to teacher requests. Here is how the games work
Prior to a task or assignment
1. Students are divided into teams.
2. The teams select specific/unique compliance phrase (e.g., Sure I will; Sure, anytime; or No problem).
3. Students receive points for their team for saying the phrase and complying with requests.
4. Teams earn rewards for reaching compliance goals.
Conflict resolution
is a group of positive approaches that a facilitator uses to assist two or more individuals to resolve conflict in daily life. Conflict resolution concepts can be taught alone or within the standard school curriculum. Powell, McLaughlin, Savage, and Zehm (2001) describe three steps of conflict resolution:
Negotiation is a process whereby students attempt to work out an agreement. The goal is to arrive at a win-win solution, one that benefits both students. The steps in the negotiation process are (Johnson & Johnson, as cited in
Powell et al., 2001
):
a. Describe what each student wants.
b. Describe what each student feels.
c. Exchange reasons for specifying positions that have created the conflict.
d. Understand each other’s position.
e. Invent options for mutual benefit.
f. Reach an agreement that is mutually beneficial.
When students cannot reach an agreement by themselves, a third party becomes involved. Many schools use
peer mediation
, a process that involves students who are trained in the negotiation process and who act as a third party.
Before mediation begins, a period of time is provided for each student to cool off; then each student must agree to make a commitment to the mediation process. The mediator works to keep the discussion focused on the conflict and not sidetracked. The role of the mediator is to assist the two parties in finding a solution and to facilitate the process so that students can learn how to use it on their own. When an agreement is reached, it is written down and everyone signs it. When an agreement cannot be reached, the process moves to arbitration.
Arbitration is a process whereby a solution to the conflict is imposed by a third party, such as a special educator or counselor. Sometimes the arbitrator asks students to submit a written solution to the conflict and explains that the fairest one will be selected
Because many students need positive behavior instruction, schools are reexamining traditional discipline procedures and providing opportunities for students to learn self-discipline. There are several common features of schoolwide behavioral support systems:
• Total staff commitment to managing behavior, whatever approach is taken
• Clearly defined and communicated expectations and rules
• Consequences and clearly stated procedures for correcting rule-breaking behaviors
• An instructional component for teaching students self-control and/or social skill strategies
• A support plan to address the needs of students with chronic, challenging behaviors (
Blum, 2005
)
For students with identified disabilities, IDEA mandates specific disciplinary action when students violate codes of conduct, school rules, or present a danger to themselves or others (
Figure 10.10
). As part of any discipline action and possible change of placement, the IEP team must review all relevant information in the student’s file to determine more information about the student’s behavior that caused the violation and if the behavior is a manifestation of the student’s disability. If the team decides that this was indeed the case, then the school must take immediate steps to remedy the student’s program. The team must conduct a functional behavioral assessment, unless the school has already completed such an assessment, and implement a behavioral intervention plan. If the student already has a behavioral intervention plan, the team must review the plan and modify it as necessary (
Figure 10.11
).
Figure 10.10 IDEA and discipline of students with disabilities
Figure 10.11 Manifestation determination and IDEA requirements
Snapshot: John Fuller School District
Administrators and educators at the John Fuller School District are in the third year of implementing a districtwide positive behavior support system. The first year, teachers agreed on a districtwide
code of conduct
(
Figure 10.12
). A code of conduct defines the behavior that teachers, administrators and other school staff, and parents expect of students. Sometimes students, along with teachers and other school personnel, sign their names to a public display of the school’s code of conduct. When students do not follow the code, teachers use a standard set of schoolwide disciplinary procedures. When the behavior escalates beyond typical minor classroom violations, the procedures include a social cognitive problem-solving component that asks the students, in writing, to do the following:
Figure 10.12 Schoolwide code of conduct from the John Fuller
Source: Adapted from the Franklin Elementary School-Wide Behavior Management Plan 2006—2007. Retrieved July 26, 2007, from
http://schools.beps.org/schools/ces/franklin/pdf/FES=BehaviorM=Manage-ment=Plan
• Describe what happened.
• Describe what the student did.
• Identify which conduct principles were violated.
• Explain the effect on the student and others.
• Specify what needs to happen.
• Articulate the consequences.
• Plan how to prevent the transgression from happening again.
In the second year, to assist students in learning
self-discipline
, a process that involves learning how to exert self-control and manage one’s own behaviors, the teachers established a districtwide behavioral support system in which students have the chance to earn points for good behavior and can exchange the points for the privilege of being a
self-manager
—a role that allows a student to carry out special tasks, such as running errands. As part of the self-manager program, teachers give students a “Caught You” award when they catch a student exemplifying one or more of the behaviors in the code of conduct. The teacher writes a brief description of the positive behavior observed on the “I got caught” sticker, which can be worn by the student or displayed in the classroom or hallway.
During the third year, the teachers developed social skills lessons for classroom instruction and focused on strategies for dealing with the needs of students with chronic behavioral problems. They created crisis-prevention strategies and family-support networks. Educators and administrators are pleased with having a consistent, efficient process that supports both students and teachers.
Special educators work closely with professionals in local and regional community agencies. For example, social workers, mental health counselors, psychologists, and consulting psychiatrists may be involved, along with special educators, occupational therapists, physical therapists, and speech and language pathologists, in delivering services in outpatient mental health treatment centers. Let us take a closer look at how these professionals would work together to help Jake, who is 15 years old.
Snapshot: Jake’s Evaluation and Treatment
Staff at the intensive outpatient mental health treatment center are evaluating Jake while providing crisis stabilization and treatment. This is the third outpatient treatment for Jake, who has episodes of aggressive behavior and has been diagnosed with intermittent explosive disorder. According to DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000, pp. 663–667), this disorder involves discrete episodes in which the individual is unable to resist aggressive impulses that result in serious acts of violence or destruction of property. Jake has a history of violent, aggressive, and oppositional behavior at home. After threatening to hurt his mother with a knife, Jake was referred to the center, and school personnel have been working with Jake’s out-reach social worker and psychiatrist.
As part of Jake’s evaluation, the center is using a
strength-based assessment
. This assessment approach measures skills, achievements, and characteristics that create a sense of personal accomplishment, contribute to satisfying relationships, and help the individual to deal with adversity and stress (
Rudolph & Epstein, 2002
).
Once Jake’s initial evaluation was completed, a team meeting was arranged. The team consisted of Jake, his mother and grandmother, his primary therapist at the treatment center, a child protective service caseworker, the school counselor, Jake’s best friend, his favorite special educator, and his math teacher.
The team initially focused on how to promote Jake’s strengths. After reviewing Jake’s intrapersonal and academic strengths, team members made several recommendations to support Jake in pursuing his interests, including joining the school’s intramural basketball team, becoming a peer tutor in math, pursuing volunteer work, and structuring free time with peers through participation in supervised community activities.
The team then addressed areas for skill development, including improving interpersonal and affective skills as well as increasing family involvement. The team agreed to work on the affective skills through Jake’s participation in an intensive anger-management program for youth and their families. Jake also agreed to meet with the school counselor to discuss difficulties he may be having with peers and to establish concrete goals in an effort to increase his understanding of the consequences of his actions.
The team planned to provide support to Jake’s mother in developing behavior support, problem solving, and communication skills through in-home Family Preservation Services, a division of the state’s department of mental health. Jake’s family agreed to plan a meal together at least three times per week and hold meetings at least once a week to build family communication (adapted from Rudolph & Epstein, 2002).
A valuable resource for educators is the development of community mentors who can be linked with students. A mentor is typically an older, established member of the business community or a retired person who makes a commitment to be a young person’s guide over a period of time (
Waller, 2002
). The mentor can be a continuous presence in the student’s life, “seeing potential, challenging, encouraging, demonstrating, as well as providing resources and access” (p. 14).
In Hawaii, the Wai‘anae
Hawaiian Studies Program (
Yamauchi, 2003
) serves native Hawaiian students in a predominantly low-income community. The program consists of four core elements:
• Contextualization of instruction within students’ home and school backgrounds
• Joint productive activity between teachers, students, and community mentors
• “Detracking” of students
• Teaming and looping of teachers
Research to Practice
Dropout Prevention
Students with mild and moderate disabilities are at high risk for dropping out of school before high school graduation. To address this concern, educators have examined ways of reaching students with disabilities at the middle school level. Research on these dropout-prevention programs shows promising results (
Christenson, Sinclair, Evelo, & Thurlow, 1995
;
Edgar & Johnson, 1995
;
Thornton, 1995
).
Some successful prevention programs target specific groups of students. For example, the Achievement for Latinos through Academic Success (ALAS) program is an effective research-based dropout-prevention program for high-risk Mexican youth, including those with disabilities, who live in high-poverty urban neighborhoods (
What Works Clearing-house, 2006
). Somers and Piliawsky (2004) describe a prevention program targeted to urban African American adolescents. A major finding was that students appeared to benefit from working with adults who cared about their success.
The Belief Academy (
Edgar, Parker, Siegel, & Johnson,
1994
) emphasizes accelerated acquisition of basic skills. The program also provides social support and family case management to address out-of-school issues that affect learning (medical care, housing, family counseling). Both this and the ALAS program include the following components: maintaining persistent, long-term contact with students; adapting school rules; establishing discipline procedures and policies for students; and facilitating student participation in school-sponsored activities.
Questions for Reflection
1. What are some other ways schools are working on dropout prevention?
2. What are the current statistics on school dropouts among students with and without disabilities?
Instruction is community based and focuses on weekly fieldwork within the community with teachers and community mentors. During their fieldwork, students learn from their teachers and community mentors about concepts that are valued in the community. For example, taking care of the land through archaeological and environmental projects is consistent with the traditional Hawaiian value m~;lama i ka ‘m~;ina (p. 384).
According to the research, Hawaiian students’ grades improve the longer they remain in the program, and they are less likely to drop out of school. These students think more about career and postsecondary education than students not enrolled in the program. Finally, the students report that they feel more connected to their school and community.
Students with and without disabilities learn about their community through field-based research.
Educators can draw on natural mentors, too. Mentoring is a long-established aspect of many families. Siblings, parents, grandparents, and aunts and uncles may have provided a support system since the student was a young child. In some cultures, such as among the Navajos of the southwestern United States, people believe that mentoring is a birthright, and each person is expected to fulfill individual responsibilities to relatives.
Snapshot: Uncle Teles
Among the Dine (Navajo) people, the maternal uncle mentors his sisters’ children. In many families, his responsibilities include shepherding his nieces and nephews through their education. Teles, for example, is a young attorney and a college professor in a large metropolitan area in the Southwest, several hours’ drive from his tribal home on the Navajo reservation. Since his six nieces have been in grade school, Teles has inspired them to set goals and achieve in school. He challenges them and provides them with both emotional and material support as they progress through each phase of their educational development. Guided by Teles, the three oldest girls graduated from their border town (the town adjacent to the reservation) high school a year early and subsequently moved to the city where Teles lives. Currently, four of his nieces, one of whom has an infant, live with Teles in his home in the city. Heather, an eighth grader, is continuing her education via home schooling as she undergoes her second round of chemotherapy for bone cancer (adapted from Waller, 2002, p. 14).
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Summary
• Students with problem behaviors do not fit into any one category; rather, they exhibit a wide variety of behaviors, from extremely aggressive and oppositional to extremely withdrawn and anxious.
• To assess student needs, educators use a functional behavioral assessment.
• Planning and implementing instruction involves understanding what motivates behavior and using a behavioral intervention plan that specifies the skills or replacement behaviors that the student needs.
• Educators help strengthen school and community capacity by using schoolwide behavior support systems, collaborating with families, and working with other professionals in community agencies.
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Social Skills
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
Describe various approaches to assessing social skills.
Discuss planning and implementing instruction that matches student needs in social skills.
Compare and contrast research-based intervention programs.
Describe how educators create safe classrooms.
Developing and enhancing social skills involves teaching classroom success skills, effective communication, how to work with others, self-control, and self-advocacy. In the classroom, special educators work with a wide range of students who have different educational diagnoses, such as learning disabilities, emotional disturbance, mental retardation, or autism, but who have similar needs in learning and developing good social skills. Social skills instruction is an essential component in building interpersonal relationships and in becoming an effective communicator and a good citizen.
Before instruction can begin, educators must assess student strengths and needs. Educators typically use a variety of assessment approaches, including observations and rating scales. For instance, the special educator usually begins by making several observations of the student in the classroom, in the cafeteria, and, for younger children, on the playground. Information can be gathered by talking with the student, the parents, and classroom teachers. The special educator then synthesizes the results and carefully reviews the assessment information before planning instructional activities.
Conducting Observations
Conducting observations involves a systematic process of gathering information by watching the student’s behavior across school environments. Educators carefully define the behavior in observable terms. For example, one teacher wanted to observe a student who was reported to be “very active.” So that each person who was conducting the observation knew exactly what the behavior “very active” looked like, the teachers defined the behavior in the following manner: talking out of turn and out-of-seat behavior. After identifying the behavior, educators specify the location(s) for the observations and decide what method to use in recording observation data (Cohen & Spenciner, 2007). Educators select one or more of the following recording methods, depending on the assessment question:
Special educators gather valuable information about social skills through observation.
1.
Anecdotal records.
When teachers want to record an unanticipated event, they often use an
anecdotal record
. This is a brief written account that describes the event(s) after it has occurred.
2.
Running records.
When teachers are interested in the sequence of behavior(s), they complete a
running record
, a description of the event as it occurs. Running records are useful when a teacher believes (or hypothesizes) that one or more antecedent conditions affect behavior. By studying the observational data, the teacher can confirm (or deny) the hypotheses.
3.
Event recordings.
When teachers want to know how frequently an event is demonstrated, they use
event recording
, which records the event each time it occurs. Students also can record their developing skills.
4.
Duration recordings.
Sometimes teachers want to know how long an event or behavior persists.
Duration recording
is used to measure this.
5.
Intensity recordings.
If the assessment question focuses on the degree or strength of a behavior, the teacher uses intensity recording.
Intensity recording
measures various degrees of behavior such as low, medium, or high. Because the ratings depend on the observer’s judgment, this method of observation can be subjective and unreliable unless the observer develops descriptors of each of the various levels (
Figure 9.1
).
6.
Latency recordings.
When teachers want to know the amount of time between a request and the occurrence of a behavior or event, they use
latency recording
. To do this, a teacher uses a stopwatch and records the time between the request and the initiation of the behavior.
7.
Interval recordings.
If the assessment question is whether a behavior occurred at various times throughout a class period or in another prespecified time period, a teacher selects interval recording. In
interval recording
, the teacher divides the observation period into equal time segments, such as 30-second or 1-minute intervals, and marks the interval if the teacher observes the behavior during that time period. Sometimes educators combine event and interval recording by marking each event as it occurs within the time period, thereby noting the frequency of the behavior during each time segment and developing a record of the frequency of behaviors over time.
Figure 9.1 Teacher-developed descriptors for assessing student participation in small-group work (intensity observation recording)
Source: Adapted from Assessment of Children and Youth with Special Needs, 3rd ed., by L. G. Cohen and L. J. Spenciner, 2007, Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Adapted with permission.
Figure 9.2
illustrates an interval observation form that a special educator and a student developed to track the student’s progress in staying out of fights. By using information on the observation form, the teacher can probe further regarding the student’s perception of the events leading up to fighting.
Educators also gather information about a student’s social skills from other teachers, parents, and the student by using rating scales. Some rating scales, such as the School Social Behavior Scales (
Merrell, 2002
) are completed by the teacher, whereas others, such as the Social Skills Rating System (
Gresham & Elliott,
1990
) include separate rating scales for teachers and parents as well as a self-report form for students.
Many of the rating scales that are currently on the market were published some time ago. In fact, many of these scales are almost 20 years old. These rating scales should be updated and new editions published to ensure that the information is still valid and the instrument is technically sound.
Figure 9.2 Teacher-student-developed interval observation form
After these initial assessment results are analyzed, the special educator uses this information to plan instruction. Later, once instruction begins, the educator should carefully monitor student progress. Is the instruction effective? Do classroom activities enhance students’ social skills? Teachers continue to use observations, rating scales, and self-reports to collect information, to inform instruction, and to monitor student progress.
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In planning and implementing social skills instruction, special and general educators may work together to plan whole-class activities. At other times, special educators may work with individuals or small groups of students with disabilities on targeted social skills. These targeted skills are described in the student’s IEP, which mandates social skill instruction for the student with a disability.
During the planning stage, teachers use the assessment information to identify the social skills that students need. If a student has not acquired specific skills such as asking for help or learning how to listen, then the instruction targets these skills. Furthermore, instruction should be offered in the student’s classroom, where there will be opportunities throughout the day to practice the targeted skills.
Generally, individual social skills are grouped by categories, which include classroom success skills, effective communication, working with others, self-control, and advocacy.
Figure 9.3
illustrates examples of specific skills.
Figure 9.3 Some of the social skills that special educators teach
By the time most students finish the primary grades, they have learned the behaviors necessary to succeed. They know how to listen and follow a teacher’s directions, they ask questions when they don’t know or don’t understand, and they ask for help when needed.
Students with learning and behavior problems may not acquire these basic classroom skills as readily. Students with language-based learning disabilities and behavior problems sometimes have difficulties using language that is appropriate to a situation, knowing when to speak and when to listen, and understanding what is being said. Some students with learning disabilities have difficulties interpreting nonverbal messages, such as the way a person uses a facial expression or positions the body. Some students with disabilities have difficulty observing what is acceptable in one situation and not in another.
Oppositional behavior, language-based learning disabilities, hyperactivity, and inattention often affect a student’s ability to learn these basic skills without direct instruction. Thus, special educators frequently design learning activities to teach specific skills to individual students. In preparing to teach a skill, special educators usually begin with a
task analysis
, which identifies the steps or behaviors that comprise the skill. For example, a teacher identified the following steps in teaching a student how to make good choices:
1. Stop and think.
2. Decide what choices I have.
3. Decide what might happen if I select choice 1 or choice 2.
4. Choose the best option.
5. Evaluate the choice. Decide what happened as a result of my choice. Decide if this was the best choice to make.
After identifying all the steps, the teacher plans how to teach these skills to students. For example, this teacher plans to begin the instruction by talking with the student about a situation between two students that the teacher observed. The teacher feels that this example will spark the student’s interest and involve the student in an actual problem. The teacher encourages the student to identify other choices that could have been made. After their discussion, the teacher introduces the list with the preceding steps; the student will keep it for later reference.
In the following days, the teacher plans to create a role-playing scenario in which the student is required to use these steps in making decisions. Or the teacher may model one of the steps and ask the student to identify the step and what would follow. The teacher should be alert for teachable moments to encourage the student to practice decision-making skills in real situations.
For many students, from the moment they board the school bus or walk onto the school grounds, they become engaged with others in conversation. “Hey, how’s it goin’?” “What’s up?” Other students may be greeted by no one. No one will slide over on the bus seat to make room. The small group of students talking in the hall will not move aside to let them join the conversation. Not being accepted often leads to further interpersonal difficulties, such as acting out or withdrawing further from other students.
Other students get into difficulty because of what they say to others or because of the tone and inflection they use. Often these students are not aware of the effect they are having on others until it is too late. Some of these difficulties may be the result of impulsive behavior or inability to read the more subtle signals of context clues. In Chapter 2 we referred to these difficulties in understanding and following the social rules of language as pragmatics.
Special educators provide direct instruction to enable students to acquire the social skills for communicating with others. For example, the teacher begins an instructional activity by discussing a situation in which some students experienced difficulties in dealing with peer pressure. Together they discuss possible reasons why some individuals may want to coerce another individual. They brainstorm possible consequences and the difficulty of resisting pressure from other students. The educator leads the discussion about other alternatives, such as suggesting a list of more acceptable group activities.
Research to Practice
Teaching Social Skills to Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders
Teaching social skills is a major focus in working with children with autism spectrum disorders. How effective are these efforts? In a meta-analysis of 55 single-subject design studies, one research group (
Bellini, Peters, Benner, & Hopf, 2007
) found that most programs have been only minimally effective. These results are consistent with another meta-analysis (
Rao, Beidel, & Murray, 2007
) of clinic and classroom settings, which also found programs in these setting are minimally effective.
Based on the research, how might teachers improve instruction of social skill? Gresham, Sugai, and Horner (2001) offer some suggestions:
•
Intervention:
Intervention should be offered more frequently and more intensely. Educators should use “teachable moments” to reinforce social skills frequently throughout the school day.
•
Setting:
Intervention should be in the child’s typical classroom setting. Educators should select interventions that can be implemented in the regular classroom, as opposed to pull-out programs or clinic settings.
•
Matching instruction to skill need:
Educators should teach specific skills based on assessment of needs. If a student is having difficulty in joining a group discussion among peers, then instruction should target what the student could do to become part of the discussion.
Questions for Reflection
1. Consider a student with autism spectrum disorders. What specific social skills might this student have? What skills might the student need?
2. Brainstorm with a peer how you could match instruction to skill need (in the first question).
Working with others involves taking turns, collaborating, building trust, participating in group decision making, and working to resolve conflicts. Although some students with learning disabilities, ADHD, behavioral problems, emotional disabilities, and other disabilities that affect language and impulse control develop collaborative skills by observing peers and participating in classroom experiences, others may need specific instruction, modeling, rehearsal, feedback, and repeated opportunities to build these skills.
Teachers model how students can work together by problem solving through classroom meetings. A teacher might begin by identifying the concern. For example, an elementary teacher gathers the students together for their weekly class meeting, saying, “I observed a problem at recess today, and I’m wondering if anyone else observed it, too.” The students quickly identify the problem: Some students pushed others aside while getting in line. As the problem is discussed, the teacher acknowledges students’ ideas and affirms their insights. “Yes, Sasha, each person has a ‘personal space’ that other people need to respect.” The teacher continues, “Does anyone have an idea how we could help people remember about personal space?” Social problem solving is more successful if the teacher doesn’t attempt to formulate a solution but rather encourages the students to identify possible solutions and then choose one that they are willing to try (
Powell, McLaughlin, Savage, & Zehm, 2001
). At the conclusion, the teacher may ask students to sign an agreement indicating their commitment to trying the solution.
Snapshot: Marysville High School
At Marysville High School, the IEP team often recommends handhelds (PDAs) as AT for students with disabilities. Students use their AT devices to assist in developing skills in working with others, along with academics and organization skills. Each day, during the first period, they work with the resource room teacher to check their schedules and revise their to-do lists, which are saved to the handheld. The teacher writes reminders on the board, and students enter the tasks. During other class periods, the students attach standard-sized keyboards to input notes directly into their PDAs. If a student misses a class or some of the notes, another student’s notes can be beamed into the student’s PDA. The teachers find that the beaming capability helps students work together and share information. Later, the student pops the PDA into the cradle and “hot syncs” the file to a desktop computer to print out and study.
Students use PDAs in many ways throughout the school day. In mathematics class, these devices become graphing calculators. The simple buttons on the Palm make learning graphing procedures easier than on more complex graphing calculators. This helps to eliminate frustrating situations. In current events, students download a copy of a national daily newspaper. In physical education, the handheld becomes a stopwatch. According to staff at Marysville High School, “When you make sharing information easier, collaboration becomes possible. Because the students enjoy working with the handheld, it is easier to get them to work as a team: Kids can beam their work to each other and share seamlessly, without photocopying, scribbling in notebooks, or circular discussions” (
Marysville High School, 2002
, pp. 1–3).
Self-control, sometimes referred to as
self-regulation
, is the ability of people to monitor and adjust their behavior or language in response to a situation. As individuals develop, they learn how to respond to new situations by using past experiences and reflections. They may think or say things to themselves to try to direct their responses. A meta-analysis of research studies (
Kavale & Mostert, 2004
) suggests that students with learning disabilities exhibit a wide spectrum of social skill deficits, including difficulties in locus of control, social competence, social relationships, self-concept, and interpersonal skills. Special educators help students with learning disabilities, ADHD, behavioral disorders, and emotional disabilities develop self-control by using direct instruction and instructional strategies such as modeling, coaching, prompting, and providing constructive feedback.
Research to Practice
Teaching Social Skills to Students with Learning Disabilities and Behavior Problems
Frequently, special educators teach social skills along with ongoing academic instruction by using cooperative learning and direct instruction. A number of research studies point to the effectiveness of these two methods in developing and enhancing social skills. Elbaum and Vaughn (1999) conducted a research synthesis of school-based interventions designed to enhance the self-concept of students with learning disabilities. They found that a key component of successful academic interventions was an emphasis on having students work collaboratively with their classmates, as in cooperative learning activities, and receiving feedback from their peers on their progress.
Much research points to the effectiveness of direct instruction for teaching social skills. In a meta-analysis of 272 research studies, Swanson (1999) examined the outcomes for students of average intelligence who were diagnosed with learning disabilities. The analysis showed that the most effective form of instruction combined components of direct instruction (teacher-directed lecture, discussion, and learning from books) with components of strategy instruction. Results of a number of additional research studies support both direct instruction and specific instruction of learning strategies for children with learning disabilities and behavior problems (
Pelco & Reed-Victor, 2007
;
Scanlon, Deshler, & Schumaker, 1996
;
Wang & Wang, 2007
).
Questions for Reflection
1. What is strategy instruction and how can you learn more about it?
2. Identify two or three learning strategies you have used (or observed) in the classroom. Search the literature to see which strategies have a research base. Share your findings with the class.
Sometimes educators teach learning strategies to students. A
learning strategy
, sometimes referred to as strategy instruction, consists of a set of steps to help a student develop and use appropriate social skills or complete an academic assignment. Teachers who help students acquire learning strategies teach them how to be responsible for their own behavior. You can use the following steps to teach a learning strategy to a student:
1. Pretest the student on the task to determine strengths and challenges (for example, managing frustration). Discuss with the student the need for a more effective strategy and ask for the student’s commitment to try a new strategy.
2. Break the strategy into smaller parts. Describe each part to the student and discuss why it is important.
A special educator helps a student develop self-control by providing constructive feedback.
3. Model the new strategy for the student, using thinking aloud as the strategy is modeled.
4. Ask the student to rehearse each step verbally until the self-instruction is error free.
5. Arrange for the student to practice the new strategy using a controlled situation. Provide positive and corrective feedback.
6. Arrange for practice in a less controlled or real situation.
7. Posttest the student and give specific feedback regarding performance gains.
8. Help the student continue to generalize the strategy by careful planning and monitoring. Help the student identify where and under what condition the strategy would be useful. Continue periodic follow-up. (Tollefson & Neduchal, 2000)
Teachers can also encourage middle school and high school students to produce their own strategies by following a procedure such as the SUCCESS strategy (
Figure 9.4
). However, teachers should use caution in requiring a student to remember too many acronyms and self-monitoring phrases because many students with learning disabilities may have short-term memory problems.
Students with disabilities must have opportunities to learn how to advocate for conditions that will help them succeed. The special educator can provide direct instruction, encourage students to join peer support groups in the community, connect students with Web sites maintained by students with disabilities, and arrange for students to hear from successful community members who have disabilities. Students need many opportunities to learn self-advocacy skills. Learning how to become a successful self-advocate takes time. It is a process that should begin in elementary school and extend through Grade 12.
Figure 9.4 Steps for students to use in developing their own learning strategies
Source: Adapted from “Teaching Adolescents with Learning Disabilities to Generate and Use Task-Specific Strategies,” by E. S. Ellis, D. D. Deshler, and J. B. Schumaker,
1989
, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22(2). Adapted with permission.
After identifying the social skill and the steps involved, the teacher identifies the assessment approach that will be used to monitor student progress. This might include teacher observation, a curriculum-based assessment, or performance-based assessment. Here’s what one teacher did.
One teacher in Florida decided to assess the students’ ability to wait their turn during discussion in her fifth-grade class. At 9:10 a. m. she noted how many students in the first two rows waited their turn to speak. At 9:20 a. m. she repeated this observational scan for rows 3 and 4, and at 9:30 a. m., for the remaining students. She repeated this several times throughout the day until she had a good idea of the group’s and each individual’s abilities. (
Warger & Rutherford, 1996
, pp. 21–22)
Implementing Instruction
How will social skills be taught? In other words, what instructional strategies will the teacher use? Based on research findings, Gresham et al. (2001) suggest that when students must acquire new skills, instruction should include modeling, coaching, behavioral rehearsal, and performance feedback. When students display inappropriate performance of previously acquired skills, interventions should address antecedent conditions or manipulation of consequences. Educators might change the antecedent conditions by arranging for peer tutoring or might use
incidental teaching
, an instructional strategy that involves using an event or a situation as it occurs to develop or teach a specific skill. Changing the consequences could include contingency contracting, differential reinforcement, or a group-oriented contingency contract.
Contingency contracts
are written agreements between a student and the teacher that describe what the student should do, the behavior(s) that should occur, and the consequence or reinforcement that the student will receive.
Snapshot: Campbell Steele, Special Education Consultant
Campbell Steele, a special education consultant, meets regularly with general education teachers regarding students’ progress and works weekly with several small groups of students in general education classrooms. The small-group sessions allow the students to practice social skills that they have role-played and discussed in the resource room with Campbell. In working with small groups of students, Campbell expects that they will generalize the skills learned in the resource room to other settings. Campbell also works to promote generalization by using anecdotal recordings to note her own observations of students in general education classrooms. Later, she discusses the observations with individual students, providing an opportunity for each student to evaluate the behavior and giving feedback. Campbell also works to promote generalization by asking the classroom teachers to observe students’ behavior in response to classroom situations and to provide feedback to the students.
Educators use various assessment approaches at the end of a unit or marking period to show the student’s growth and progress—that is, to demonstrate achievement. Students can assemble a collection of artifacts, such as video clips to illustrate cooperative group work, self-reflections on staying out of fights, and teacher-written comments on student behaviors, in a portfolio. Or students may complete several performance tasks. Scores that the students assigned themselves, as well as teacher scores and comments on their performance task assessment lists, can illustrate individual skill levels.
The teacher also can collect information about the student’s achievements by asking the student to complete a standardized rating scale or questionnaire. Parents and general educators can offer their perspectives through rating forms, notes, e-mail, or face-to-face conferences. Special educators and other team members present summative assessment information at the annual IEP meeting.
Elementary School
Many children come to school with behaviors that put them at risk for school failure. Some children may have a diagnosis already, whereas others may be at risk for problem or inappropriate behaviors. Recent research suggests that when young children at risk or with emotional disabilities receive structured training in social skills in combination with teacher training in behavior management and instruction of parents in positive discipline, there are socially important outcomes years later (
Bullis, 2001
). One such structured skills training program is the First Step to Success.
The First Step to Success Preschool Edition (Walker, Golly et al.,
1997
b) and the First Step to Success Grades 1–3 (Walker, Stiller, et al., 1997a) are collaborative home and school intervention programs for young children who show early signs of antisocial behavior such as aggression, oppositional defiant behavior, severe tantrums, or victimization of others. The program has three components: (a) a screening procedure to identify at-risk students; (b) a school instructional component that includes a consultant-based school intervention involving the child, teachers, and peers; and (c) a parent-training component that focuses on ways parents can support and improve the child’s adjustment to school. The primary goal of the program is to teach the child to get along with others, including the teacher and peers, and to complete classroom activities in an appropriate and successful manner. The program teaches six social skills:
• Communicating and sharing in school
• Cooperating
• Accepting limits
• Solving problems
• Making friends
• Developing self-esteem and confidence
A 4-year study of First Step to Success, which involved 46 children who initially received training in kindergarten, found positive behavior changes and persistent gains in social skills into the primary grades (
Walker et al., 1998
). In a follow-up study (
Walker, Golly, McLane, & Kimmich, 2005
), the results of the earlier study were replicated.
Using First Step to Success with Native American children was successful, as reported in a small study (
Diken & Rutherford, 2005
). The authors found that shortly after the program was implemented, teacher and parents reported that children increased social play behaviors and decreased problem behaviors. Additionally, teachers noted positive changes in classroomwide behaviors.
Open Circle (Wellesley Center for Women, Wellesley College) integrates social emotion learning with academics. Teachers are trained in a multiyear curriculum for all children in grades kindergarten through fifth grade. The program encourages students to learn and practice communication, self-control, and social problem-solving skills. Open Circle meetings occur twice a week. These begin by asking the students to move their chairs into a circle. An extra chair is added, as a symbol that there is always room for another person.
Open Circle meetings last between 15 and 30 minutes and focus on topics included in the curriculum. For example, the subject might be using self-control when angry, recognizing body language, or finding ways to express your own thoughts and feelings to others. As the teacher facilitates the discussion, the open circle provides students with opportunities to develop and practice the skills. This structure “… provides an opportunity for troubled or excluded children to feel more connected to their classmates and teachers and less alone to face their problems. This process creates a safer, more inclusive classroom and school community” (Helping America’s Youth, n.d.).
Figure 9.6
illustrates a sample lesson plan using the Open Circle to learn how to deal with testing.
IN PRACTICE
Special educators and general education teachers often work together to develop whole-class activities that help students develop more effective social skills. By providing instruction within the regular classroom, students have a chance to practice skills in a natural environment. Throughout the day, the teacher can look for additional opportunities for students to practice the targeted skills. Teachers begin by identifying the social skills that students need. If a student has not acquired basic classroom skills such as asking for help or learning how to listen, then the instruction targets these specific skills.
Classroom Focus
Laurie Franchette, special education consultant, works closely with other educators in the building to support inclusion. Jen Perry’s fourth-grade classroom includes several students with learning problems and a child with autism spectrum disorder. Classroom management is a constant struggle for Jen. Jen explains, “Students have trouble following directions and completing assignments. Many students have difficulty during independent work times. I’d really like to improve this situation. Do you have any ideas, Laurie?”
Laurie remembers the Good Student Game and recalls reading about some of the research associated with delivering social skill instruction within the regular education classroom. “You might want to try this strategy that I have read about that teaches children basic classroom survival skills while helping to keep students on task.”
Working Toward Solutions
First, the teachers work to identify the behaviors that Jen wants to see in the classroom.
They make sure that the behaviors are stated in positive terms that describe what the students are to do. Here is the list of student behaviors that the teachers develop:
• Stay seated.
• Raise your hand if you have a question.
• Work quietly.
• When you finish, hand in your work.
• Use any remaining time to work on your next project.
Jen decides to address the problems during independent work time and asks Laurie if she would be willing to lead the instruction so she could observe the procedures.
Next, the teachers set performance goals and rewards. They decide that all students should be able to follow the list of expectations throughout the day during each of the several times they are expected to work independently. Next, the teachers identify the reward. If all students demonstrate the appropriate behaviors, they will receive 10 minutes of free time at the end of the day. Because students routinely ask for free time, the teachers feel confident that they will value this reward.
Finally, they develop a checklist that the students can use to monitor their own behavior. Laurie believes that encouraging students to monitor their own behavior helps them develop more independent work skills and greater pride in their accomplishments.
Figure 9.5
illustrates this self-monitoring checklist.
Jen observes as Laurie teaches the Good Student Game procedures to students in a 20-minute session. To set the context, she begins by having students discuss the relationship between good behavior and classroom success. She then presents the behaviors, models them, and gives students ample opportunities to practice them. Finally, she shows students how to monitor their own behavior by using the checklist. Over time, the teachers observe that students internalize the appropriate behavior (adapted from Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 1999, p. 6).
Figure 9.5 Daily student checklist
What the Research Says
Numerous research studies report positive outcomes for delivering instruction of social skills in the regular classroom (Bullis, 2001;
Gresham et al., 2001
; 2001 Kavale & Mostert, 2004). One group of researchers (
Babyak, Luze, & Kamps, 2000
) studied the use of the Good Student Game with elementary students. Teachers reported that this increased student on-task behaviors during independent work time. Students reported that not only did they enjoy the game, but it helped them get their work done.
MyEducationLab: Your Turn
Begin by investigating other social skills that students need to be successful learners, such as skills used in communicating with other students. Go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Autism Spectrum Disorders. Then watch the video entitled “Social Skills,” and answer the accompanying questions. After viewing the video, be prepared to discuss your findings. As a teacher, how will you provide support for social skills instruction? Next, analyze the artifact entitled “Friendship Question (Social Development 6–8).” Identify two ways in which social supports are being implemented through this assignment.
Figure 9.6 Sample lesson plan from Open Circle
Source: From the Open Circle Curriculum, Grade Five, Open Circle (
www.open-circle.org
), Wellesley Centers for Women, Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA. Copyright © 2007, Open Circle, Wellesley College. Reprinted by permission.
Hennessey (2007) reports the results of a study involving 154 fourth-grade students who took part in the Open Circle program. Children came from eight classrooms, two in each of four schools, located in middle- to upper-middle-class suburban areas. Two of the schools served more diverse populations of students. Half of the teachers were trained in the Open Circle curriculum and the other teachers were not implementing a social skills program in their classrooms. Results indicated that children who participated in the Open Circle program showed significantly greater social skills and decreases in problem behaviors, according to teacher reports, than the other group of students. Although more gains were made by children in urban areas, all students made some positive gains.
(PATHS;
Greenberg, Kusché, & Mihalic 2004
;
Kelly, Longbottom, Potts, & Williamson, 2004
) is a multiyear prevention program for students 5–12 years old. This comprehensive curriculum focuses on promoting emotional and social competencies and reducing aggression and behavior problems in elementary school. Unlike First Step to Success, which screens and identifies students who need social skills intervention, this program is provided to all children. The PATHS curriculum includes systematic lessons, materials, and instruction for teaching
• Self-control
• Social competence
• Positive peer relations
• Interpersonal problem-solving skills
The curriculum consists of 20- to 30-minute lessons three times a week. Teachers are provided with the lessons, materials, and instruction for teaching.
Figure 9.7
shows the social skills addressed in PATHS lessons.
PATHS is considered a model program by the Center for the Study of Prevention of Violence in Colorado and by the National Registry of Evidence-Based Programs and Practices because it meets a prespecified set of evaluation criteria. These criteria require model programs to have a strong research design and be replicable to establish program effectiveness. Model programs must also provide evidence of significant prevention or deterrent effects and demonstrate sustained effects.
PATHS has been field tested and researched with children both with and without disabilities, including children who have learning disabilities and emotional disturbance. Evaluations of PATHS have demonstrated significant improvements in children both with and without disabilities compared to children in control programs in a number of areas. Students improved their self-control, understanding and recognition of emotions, and thinking and planning skills. They increased their ability to tolerate frustration. Two years after the intervention, teachers reported that students with disabilities in special education settings showed decreased sadness, anxiety, and withdrawal symptoms as well as reduced aggressive and disruptive behavior, whereas students reported decreased sadness, depression, and conduct problems (
Kam, Greenberg, & Kusché, 2004
;
Kelly et al., 2004
).
Figure 9.7 Social skills addressed in PATH lessons
Source: Adapted from Blueprints for Violence Prevention, Book Ten: Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS), by
M. T. Greenberg, C. Kusché, and S. F. Mihalic, 1998
, Boulder, CO: Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence.
Middle School
In middle school, increased peer pressure and opportunities to make different choices abound: drug and alcohol use, sexual activity, and other risk-taking behaviors. At the same time, middle school students experience increased academic demands and decreased parental supervision. Schoolwide focus programs at this level typically include following rules and academic effort, whereas intense instruction in the resource room or an alternative setting may include anger management, impulse control, and resistance to use of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs (Bullis, 2001).
The Social Competence Promotion Program for Young Adolescents (
National Registry of Evidence-Based Practices, 2007
) targets students in fifth through seventh grades. This 1-year program consists of three modules with 40-minute lessons of intensive instruction. The first module includes instruction in developing the following competencies:
• Self-control
• Stress management
• Social problem solving
• Communication
skills
The other two modules teach students to apply these competences in the prevention of substance abuse and high-risk sexual behavior.
In a study of 277 middle school students (sixth graders), one research group (
Taylor, Liang, Tracy, Williams, & Seigle, 2002
) examined the effects of this social competency program. Interestingly the research findings indicated different effects for girls and boys. Girls who participated in the program showed higher levels of assertiveness as well as higher self-perceived and teacher-rated adjustment scores. Comments from the girls included the following:
“I learned to speak out.”
“I learned that it is good to share your feelings and opinions. It will help you understand more complicated things in life.” (p. 267)
Boys, on the other hand, reported higher levels of self-control and overall social skills. They had fewer problems with physical fighting than other boys. Comments from the boys included the following:
“ … to take a deep breath if I get angry”
“If you have a problem, you should sit down and talk about it instead of getting into fist fights. It’s a better way to communicate.” (p. 268)
High School
High school students with emotional disorders and those with learning disabilities often fail in school, exhibit antisocial behavior, and face unemployment. They are at high risk for dropping out of school. Research suggests that these students lack jobrelated social skills (Bullis, 2001).
The Strategic Instruction Model (SIM) for adolescents with learning disabilities was developed over many years at the Center for Research on Learning at the University of Kansas (
Deshler & Lenz, 1989
;
Deshler & Schumaker, 1993
; Deshler et al., 2001). Sometimes referred to as the Strategies Intervention Model, it is designed for small-group instruction in learning strategies across the curriculum, including reading, writing, mathematics, test-taking strategies, remembering information, and social interaction. Teachers implementing SIM use direct instruction and specific curriculum materials, including books, CDs, newsletters, and videotapes. The curriculum for social interaction consists of instructional programs in community building and in cooperative thinking strategies.
Although much has been written about SIM, research specific to it and to the development of social skills is more limited. Van Reusen, Deshler, and Schumaker (1989) found positive outcomes in training adolescents with learning disabilities to use self-advocacy procedures during the IEP conference compared to the outcomes in a control group of students. In a review of the research that focused on SIM strategies to improve social skills and generalize their use, Van Nooten (1991) found that SIM appeared to be useful in social skills training. In a further study of the benefits of using SIM, 20 typical sixth-grade students and 4 students with disabilities developed more positive academic and social perceptions over the course of the school year compared to students in the control classroom (
Reuter & Erickson, 1995
). To enhance the understanding of social studies texts, Katims and Harmon (2000) report using a cognitive strategy (person, event, place) with middle school students. They found that not only did student reading comprehension improve, but students also improved attention and academic confidence.
Students demonstrate cooperative thinking strategies in senior English class.
CONNECTIONS (
Johnson, Bullis, Mann, Benz, & Hollenbeck, 1999
) is a curriculum that addresses real-life social interaction in competitive work settings and work experiences through actual job placements or job shadowing. Composed of 33 interrelated lessons, the content covers teamwork, communication, and problem solving. Each lesson takes about 50 minutes. To monitor student progress, CONNECTIONS includes curriculum-based measures, social problem-solving assessment exercises, and a structured job interview with community employers. This curriculum is designed for use with heterogeneous groups of students, including typical students, students considered at risk, and students with disabilities.
When CONNECTIONS was used with small, heterogeneous groups of 10 to 15 students who were at risk, who had disabilities, or who were typical students, all three groups of students increased their knowledge of job-related social skills in an equivalent manner (Bullis, 2001, p. 81). This curriculum continues to be refined by the authors in the hope of moving CONNECTIONS into the general education curriculum.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
Familiarity, Dissonance, or Disability?
Teachers who have concerns about a student’s social skills may not be sure if the problems arise from the student’s disability, the student’s lack of familiarity with the skills, or dissonance with the school culture. Teachers should consider the cultural context by asking these questions:
• What do we know about this student’s linguistic, ethnic, and cultural background?
• How does the student’s family explain the behavior in question?
• Do we notice the same or similar behaviors in other students with similar backgrounds?
• Is there any indication that the student’s behavior has a cultural, ethnic, or religious basis?
• Is the student able to function successfully in more than one setting? (Adapted from
Craig, Hull, Haggart, & Perez-Selles, 2000
, p. 10)
Because communication is culturally dependent, family and community members may hold views other than those of school personnel. For example, community and family members may have cultural expectations concerning various forms of social interchange, including oral and written communication, gestures, eye contact, and body language. Good teachers search out school and community resources to learn more about other cultures and traditions. They keep an ongoing file of contact people and organizations. Teaching is a profession in which we never stop learning.
Questions for Reflection
1. Consider the students in your community. What expectations do community members hold regarding the behavior and social interactions of children and young adults?
2. What are the components of the school culture? Are these components similar or different across elementary, middle, and secondary school? How do they compare in schools in various regions of the country?
Enhancing and developing social skills helps the student manage frustration, resolve conflicts, and develop respect and appreciation for others. Yet creating a safe classroom may go beyond planning and implementing social skills instruction for selected students. When students have few positive role models in their homes or neighborhoods, they may resort to inappropriate behaviors or become victims of violent or bullying behaviors. In fact, creating safe, violence-free classrooms has become a national concern. In a nationally representative survey of more than 2,000 eighth to eleventh graders, the American Association of University Women Educational Foundation’s report Hostile Hallways: Bullying, Teasing, and Sexual Harassment in School (2001) found that one student in five fears being hurt or bullied in school. Four students in five have personally experienced sexual harassment, and 54% of the students say that they have sexually harassed someone.
Research to Practice
The Bullying Prevention Program
The Bullying Prevention Program (
Olweus, 1993
; 2003;
Olweus, Limber, & Mihalic, 1999
), first developed in Norway, targets elementary, middle, and junior high school students. This school-wide plan to respond to and prevent bullying behavior begins by building awareness of the current situation, with adults at school and parents examining the degree of bullying and victimization in their school. Various persons, including a school administrator, a teacher from each grade, a guidance counselor, a parent, and a student representative, form a bullying prevention coordinating committee.
In the classroom, students can learn strategies to avoid being bullied and ways to stop bullying behavior. Teachers hold regular classroom meetings with students to discuss various aspects of bullying and the agreed-upon classroom rules. During the meetings, students engage in role playing, writing, and small-group discussions to help them understand the harm caused by bullying and what they can do.
The Bullying Prevention Program has been used in a number of countries, including Norway, England, Germany, and the United States. Results of several research studies indicate that student reports of bullying or being bullied drop substantially. Students report better discipline at school, better social relationships, and more positive attitudes toward schoolwork and school (Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, n.d.). Olweus et al. (1999) describe the first systematic evaluation of this program in the United States, which involved more than 6,000 students from schools in South Carolina. Research findings indicated that middle school students showed significant decreases in self-reports of bullying in schools that implemented the program compared to control schools.
Questions for Reflection
1. What other bullying prevention programs have a strong research base documenting their effectiveness?
2. Working with a small group of colleagues, compare and contrast two of these programs. Which would you recommend? Why?
In a study of more than 450 seventh and eighth graders, Seals and Young (2003) found that students perceived a high frequency of bullying in their schools. Forty-five percent of the seventh graders and 42% of the eighth graders reported that bullying occurs often.
Creating safe classrooms involves zero tolerance for violent or bullying behaviors.
Bullying
means that a student is exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative actions on the part of one or more other students. These actions involve intentionally inflicting, or attempting to inflict, injury or discomfort. The behaviors may include physical (hitting, kicking, pushing, choking), verbal (name calling, threatening, taunting, spreading rumors), or other behaviors such as making faces or obscene gestures or intentionally excluding another student from a group (Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, n.d.).
Students who resort to bullying frequently have learned to use aggressive behaviors to obtain what they need or want. More often than not, these behaviors are learned first in the home, where these students have few positive role models. One or both parents often display violent verbal and physical overreactions, later ignoring the child for some time. Little praise or encouragement is given. The child grows up learning that intimidation and brute force are ways to interact with others (
Roberts & Morotti, 2000
).
The Office of Civil Rights and the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services consider bullying a student with a disability as disability harassment. In addition to the devastating effects this behavior may have on the victim, bullying may violate state and local civil rights, child abuse, and criminal laws (
Cantu & Heumann, 2000
). Educators and other school staff have a responsibility to respond immediately to disability harassment and take prompt action to end all forms of this behavior.
National organizations have posted information about bullying and violence on the Internet for teachers, parents, and students. The APA has excellent Web pages geared to adolescents (
Figure 9.8
), and the National Crime Prevention Council is a rich resource for teachers, parents, and students (
Figure 9.9
).
Figure 9.10
provides suggestions for teachers in classroom management and ways to create safe classroom environments.
Snapshot: Martinville School District
A team of concerned administrators and educators from the Martinville School District met regularly to study the incidence and degree of school violence and bullying in the schools. They held discussions with parents and community leaders and surveyed students and teachers. Their efforts helped to build awareness among students, parents, educators, and citizens of the degree and seriousness of the problem. When they analyzed the incidence and rate of bullying, they found that many students had experienced some form of bullying and that bullying and other forms of harassment occurred frequently. Students, both with and without disabilities, had used bullying behavior and were victims of bullying. Frequently, these students displayed poor social skills. Thus began a multiyear effort to foster student responsibility, develop a code of conduct, and improve discipline for all students, both with and without disabilities.
As part of this effort, the special education teachers were asked to work with the school psychologist to prepare a workshop on promising practices and practical approaches to developing social skills. They decided to ask each participant to answer the following: Which skills do you use when you join a group of friends who are engaged in a conversation? Which skills do you think they identified?
Figure 9.8 Warning signs for students: Controlling your own risk of violent behavior
Source: American Psychological Association, n.d., and MTV. Copyright © 1999 by the American Psychological Association. Adapted with permission. For additional information, consult the Web site
http://helping.apa.org/warningsigns
Figure 9.9 Warning signs for teachers
Source: National Crime Prevention Council, n.d. Reprinted with permission from the National Crime Prevention Council.
Figure 9.10 Teacher suggestions for preventing violence
Source: Selected items from National Crime Prevention Council, n.d. Reprinted with permission from the National Crime Prevention Council. 277
Summary
• Assessment of social skills focuses on the following areas: demonstrating classroom success skills, communicating effectively, working with others, using self-control, and developing self-advocacy skills.
• Planning and implementing instruction requires matching learning activities to specific student needs. These needs may include acquiring new skills and/or learning when to use previously acquired skills.
• Effective, research-based intervention programs provide structured social skills training for all students in the general education classroom.
• Educators work toward creating safe classrooms by recognizing warning signs that students are troubled and insisting on zero tolerance of violent or bullying behaviors.
Chapter 10 Promoting Positive Behavior
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
Describe problem and challenging behaviors.
Compare and contrast various approaches to assessing problem and challenging behaviors.
Discuss planning and implementing instruction that matches student needs in promoting positive behaviors.
Describe how educators can strengthen school and community capacity to promote positive behaviors.
Promoting positive behaviors often involves working with students with severe and persistent behavior challenges who typically have limited academic success, lack of interest in school-related activities, and attendance difficulties (Scanlon & Mellard, 2002). Although these students may be creative and articulate, they are at risk for dropping out of school. This chapter focuses on understanding behaviors and learning more about assessing, planning, and implementing effective instruction to promote positive behaviors.
10.1 Understanding Problem and Challenging Behaviors
Students with problem behaviors do not fit into any one category. Rather, they exhibit a wide variety of behaviors, from extremely aggressive and oppositional to extremely withdrawn and anxious. Aggressive behaviors may involve acts against other individuals, such as fighting, coercion, bullying, negative interactions, and manipulation. Oppositional behaviors include noncompliance and defiance. Students may engage in stealing, lying, drug or alcohol use, and other risky behaviors.
In the classroom, students with antisocial behaviors are often the first ones recognized to have problem behaviors (Figure 10.1). In contrast, students with severe and persistent behavior problems may exhibit forms of behavior not necessarily disruptive to the classroom but definitely disruptive to the student’s learning and academic progress. Classroom observations may indicate that a student is extremely withdrawn, rarely interacting with others or that another student is very anxious, showing extreme reactions to minor everyday events.
Students who carry psychiatric diagnoses in addition to the educational label of emotional disturbance may have a form of mental illness such as depression. This condition often makes it difficult to come to school or to stay the entire school day.
Figure 10.1 What we know about students with antisocial behaviors
Source: Adapted from “Preventing Problems by Improving Behavior,” by D. M. Kamps, 2002, in Preventing Problem Behaviors, p. 12 (B. Algozzine and P. Kay, Eds.), Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Lack of physical strength and a feeling of hopelessness often prevent students from working cooperatively with others or completing individual assignments.
Severe behavior problems are not limited to students with a diagnosis of emotional disturbance. Students with other disabilities, such as learning disabilities, mental retardation, or autism, may have compounding disabilities that include challenging or problem behaviors that persist over time. Whatever diagnoses these students carry, they probably lack many of the basic social skills discussed in Chapter 9, in addition to having problem behaviors. They may have limited insight into the feelings of other students or adults. Teachers working with students with severe and persistent problem behaviors find that each student is unique. These teachers must work with other professionals to gather information about the student’s behaviors and to develop a behavior plan that meets the student’s unique needs.
Snapshot: Sandy Stream Middle School
Troy Donahue, who recently graduated from college, took his first job in a public school as a case manager and behavior specialist at Sandy Stream Middle School. His responsibilities include working closely with the general education teachers to support students with challenging behaviors in the classroom. This morning he is meeting with the A team, one of two groups of sixth-grade teachers who are responsible for a group of 35 students. Several of the teachers have questions about some of the students. The team leader, an experienced middle school educator, facilitates the meeting.
The math teacher begins, “I am having some problems with Thomas Jones. He is so aggressive and disruptive in class, making strange noises and yelling out obscenities. At first I tried ignoring his behavior, but of course the other students react and then I just lose the entire class.” Another teacher agreed with this account and voiced additional concerns about the student’s identified learning disability and his difficulty with reading content material.
Troy knew that the disruptive behavior described by the teachers could be motivated by a number of reasons, including Thomas’s wish to escape the situation or his wish for peer attention. As the discussion continued, Troy shared his knowledge about student-motivated behavior and ways to assess behaviors through classroom observation.
10.1 Understanding Problem and Challenging Behaviors
Students with problem behaviors do not fit into any one category. Rather, they exhibit a wide variety of behaviors, from extremely aggressive and oppositional to extremely withdrawn and anxious. Aggressive behaviors may involve acts against other individuals, such as fighting, coercion, bullying, negative interactions, and manipulation. Oppositional behaviors include noncompliance and defiance. Students may engage in stealing, lying, drug or alcohol use, and other risky behaviors.
In the classroom, students with antisocial behaviors are often the first ones recognized to have problem behaviors (Figure 10.1). In contrast, students with severe and persistent behavior problems may exhibit forms of behavior not necessarily disruptive to the classroom but definitely disruptive to the student’s learning and academic progress. Classroom observations may indicate that a student is extremely withdrawn, rarely interacting with others or that another student is very anxious, showing extreme reactions to minor everyday events.
Students who carry psychiatric diagnoses in addition to the educational label of emotional disturbance may have a form of mental illness such as depression. This condition often makes it difficult to come to school or to stay the entire school day.
Figure 10.1 What we know about students with antisocial behaviors
Source: Adapted from “Preventing Problems by Improving Behavior,” by D. M. Kamps, 2002, in Preventing Problem Behaviors, p. 12 (B. Algozzine and P. Kay, Eds.), Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Lack of physical strength and a feeling of hopelessness often prevent students from working cooperatively with others or completing individual assignments.
Severe behavior problems are not limited to students with a diagnosis of emotional disturbance. Students with other disabilities, such as learning disabilities, mental retardation, or autism, may have compounding disabilities that include challenging or problem behaviors that persist over time. Whatever diagnoses these students carry, they probably lack many of the basic social skills discussed in Chapter 9, in addition to having problem behaviors. They may have limited insight into the feelings of other students or adults. Teachers working with students with severe and persistent problem behaviors find that each student is unique. These teachers must work with other professionals to gather information about the student’s behaviors and to develop a behavior plan that meets the student’s unique needs.
Snapshot: Sandy Stream Middle School
Troy Donahue, who recently graduated from college, took his first job in a public school as a case manager and behavior specialist at Sandy Stream Middle School. His responsibilities include working closely with the general education teachers to support students with challenging behaviors in the classroom. This morning he is meeting with the A team, one of two groups of sixth-grade teachers who are responsible for a group of 35 students. Several of the teachers have questions about some of the students. The team leader, an experienced middle school educator, facilitates the meeting.
The math teacher begins, “I am having some problems with Thomas Jones. He is so aggressive and disruptive in class, making strange noises and yelling out obscenities. At first I tried ignoring his behavior, but of course the other students react and then I just lose the entire class.” Another teacher agreed with this account and voiced additional concerns about the student’s identified learning disability and his difficulty with reading content material.
Troy knew that the disruptive behavior described by the teachers could be motivated by a number of reasons, including Thomas’s wish to escape the situation or his wish for peer attention. As the discussion continued, Troy shared his knowledge about student-motivated behavior and ways to assess behaviors through classroom observation.
10.2 Assessing Problem and Challenging Behaviors
IDEA requires IEP team members to address behavioral as well as learning problems, not only for students with emotional disturbance but also for all students with disabilities. When students have behavioral problems, the IEP team must conduct a functional behavioral assessment, including one or more assessment approaches that focus on identifying the biological, social, affective, and environmental factors that initiate, sustain, or end the behavior in question. Based on the functional behavioral assessment, team members then develop a behavioral intervention plan that describes the skills that students need, the instruction that will be provided, and how the plan will be evaluated.
Planning a Functional Behavioral Assessment
Educators use a functional behavioral assessment (Crone & Horner, 2003) to examine student behavior and to assist in identifying its function, or what the student obtains or is able to avoid as a result of the behavior. More specifically, a
functional behavioral assessment
consists of assessment approaches that focus on identifying social, affective, cognitive, and/or environmental factors that are student specific and are associated with the occurrence (or nonoccurrence) of specific behaviors (Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 2001). In a review of the research, Choi and Kim (1998) provide compelling evidence of the effectiveness of functional behavioral assessment of students with problem behaviors. Other studies indicate the effectiveness of interventions derived from functional behavioral assessment (Stage, Jackson, & Moscovitz, 2006; Wright-Gallo, Higbee, & Reagon, 2006) and positive outcomes over time (Kern, Gallagher, Starosta, Hickman, & George, 2006).
Information collected during this assessment helps the special educator and other members of the IEP team plan intervention and positive behavioral supports that will be written into the student’s behavior intervention plan. The behavior intervention plan describes the skills that students need, the instruction that will be provided, and how the plan will be evaluated (Cohen & Spenciner, 2007).
IDEA requires that the IEP team meet to formulate a functional behavioral assessment and to develop a behavioral intervention plan within 10 days of a disciplinary action by school personnel for behavior such as carrying a gun to school or possessing illegal drugs [34 CFR 300.530(f)] [20 U.S.C. 1415(k)(1)(F)]. If the student already has a behavioral intervention plan, the team must review and revise it as necessary to ensure that it addresses the problem behavior(s) on which the disciplinary action focused.
Identifying the Problem Behavior
The first step in planning a functional behavioral assessment is identifying the problem behavior in terms that are concrete and observable. For example, a classroom teacher describes the behavior of a student named Thomas as “aggressive and disruptive.” The special educator has to define the behavior in more objective terms so that people can measure and record it. A description such as “Thomas is aggressive and disruptive” is too vague and does not state the nature of the problem behavior or where it occurs.
Figure 10.2 Is the problem behavior linked to a skill need?
Source: From Addressing Student Problem Behavior, Part I: An IEP Team’s Introduction to Functional Behavioral Assessment and Behavior Intervention Plans (p. 5), Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 1998, Washington, DC: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice.
“Thomas threw a book, knocked over his desk, kicked it, and yelled obscenities at the teacher and other students” is specific, is objective, and describes his behavior in terms that everyone can observe. The description also identifies the context in which the educator observed the behavior.
Considering the Function of the Behavior
During the meeting, IEP team members consider the function of the behavior for the student. Does the student understand the behavioral expectations? If not, the behavior may be linked to a skill need (Figure 10.2). Is the student trying to avoid a demanding task? If so, then the student may have the skill but lacks motivation to modify the behavior (Figure 10.3).
Using Various Assessment Approaches
A functional behavioral assessment uses multiple assessment approaches, including observations, record reviews, interviews, and standardized instruments.
Figure 10.3 Does the student have the skill but not the desire to modify the behavior?
Source: From Addressing Student Problem Behavior,
Part I
: An IEP Team’s Introduction to Functional Behavioral Assessment and Behavior Intervention Plans (p. 6), Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 1998, Washington, DC: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice.
Observations
Educators and other team members can conduct observations of the student in the classroom, in the cafeteria, or in other school settings. This involves observing and recording not only the student’s behavior but also situational factors associated with the behavior. The observer notes events that occurred just before the behavior and the consequences that followed the behavior. Figure 10.4 illustrates an observation form used to collect this type of information. The teacher conducted the observation during lunch in the school cafeteria. We’ll learn more about how this observation helped in planning for the student later in this chapter. Conducting multiple observations over a period of several days helps ensure that the information is consistent and reliable.
Figure 10.4 Observation form for functional behavioral assessment
Record Reviews
The teacher also examines a student’s records. A review of past academic work and disciplinary reports indicates when difficulties occurred and the types of interventions that the teacher tried. Attendance records provide information about the number of days absent or tardy and patterns of truancy. The student’s health history provides information regarding conditions that may require medical attention or prescription drugs. The IEP team will need to know about any medical conditions that impact the student’s behavior. Medical information about Thomas’s condition was of critical importance. When Troy Donahue reviewed his school records, he discovered a note that Thomas had recently been diagnosed with Tourette’s syndrome. Troy knew that one of the characteristics of this syndrome is uncontrollable verbal outbursts.
Structured Interviews
Structured interviews
consist of a set of questions that the educator or another professional considers and plans before meeting with an individual. Interviews provide unique information from each individual’s perspective. Parents can provide information about the student’s behavior at home with siblings and friends. A school social worker can describe the student’s behavior in small-group interactions. Classroom teachers can describe settings in which the behavior does and does not occur. The student can provide a unique perspective, too. For example, the special educator might conduct an interview with Thomas with questions such as, What happened to you to make you feel so angry?
Standardized Instruments
Commercial behavior checklists and rating scales provide standardized measures for collecting information. Usually the teacher, parent, and student complete similar instruments. Sometimes a student’s peers complete them as well. This information provides different evaluations of the student’s behavior at home and at school. The examiner can test different diagnostic hypotheses to determine the settings in which behavior problems occur and how serious the behavior is perceived to be by individuals close to the student.
Analyzing and Synthesizing Information
Team members meet to compare and analyze the assessment information. Are there any patterns associated with the behavior? For example, does Thomas resort to throwing materials and shouting obscenities when he is frustrated and unable to complete his assignments? How does his medical condition of Tourette’s syndrome affect his behavior? (Behaviors associated with Tourette’s syndrome cause Thomas to vocalize and curse at unexpected times during class and display distracting head jerks.) If the team cannot determine any patterns of behavior, it reviews the approaches used to gather the information and identifies additional ways of assessing the behavior.
A Special educator teaches replacement behaviors that serve the same function as the inappropriate behavior.
Once a pattern of behavior emerges, the team establishes a
hypothesis
, which describes the probable function(s) of the behavior and allows the team to predict antecedent conditions or when the behavior is most likely (and least likely) to occur and the probable consequences that serve to maintain the behavior. For example, Thomas’s IEP team hypothesized that his behavior was caused by academic frustration and social ridicule by his classmates. To learn more about conducting a functional behavioral analysis and the process of hypothesis generation, refer to the Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice’s Web site. In addition to providing extensive information, the site has examples of useful forms for IEP teams to use in conducting a functional behavioral assessment and developing a behavioral intervention plan.
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10.3 Planning and Implementing Instruction
Once the IEP team has completed the functional behavioral assessment and developed a hypothesis concerning the behavior, team members develop (or revise) the student’s
behavioral intervention plan
. The plan addresses the function of the problem behavior by teaching the student more acceptable behaviors that address the motivation behind the behavior. Developed by the IEP team, this intervention plan describes the skills that students need, the instruction that will be provided, and how the plan will be evaluated. Researchers have found that a functional behavioral assessment and a behavioral intervention plan help students improve their behavior and prevent more serious behaviors (Ingram, 2003; Kamps et al., 1995; Scott, Liaupsin, Nelson, & Jolivette, 2003).
Figure 10.5 Considerations for designing behavioral intervention plans
Source: Addressing Student Problem Behavior,
Part III
: Creating Positive Intervention Plans and Supports (p. 6), Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 2000, Washington, DC: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice.
Behavioral Intervention Plans
Planning the behavioral intervention involves team members working together (Figure 10.5). Based on the information collected during the functional behavioral assessment, the plan
• addresses the student’s skill needs and/or performance needs;
• includes positive strategies;
• describes any classroom environment accommodations;
• describes any program accommodations or modifications;
• describes any curricular accommodations or modifications;
• describes supplementary aids and supports; and
• includes a crisis/emergency plan, if necessary.
Components of a Behavioral Intervention Plan
Addressing Skills That Students Need.
Students with behavioral problems often lack skills in communicating effectively with others, such as reading and interpreting body language and controlling anger and disappointment. To address students’ skill needs, the special educator may need to teach social skills, positive behavioral skills, and academic skills.
The behavioral intervention plan (Figure 10.6) includes a description of the problem behavior so that team members will recognize its onset. If the student lacks specific skills, the plan describes these skills and/or
replacement behaviors
that must be substituted for inappropriate behaviors. The plan describes specific goals and objectives for obtaining new skills and replacement behaviors and instructional procedures that teachers will use. For example, Thomas’s plan states that he will work with the behavior specialist to verbally identify and describe the physical signs that he experiences when he is becoming angry. In time he will learn to recognize when he is becoming angry and seek assistance rather than acting out. The behavior specialist will also teach Thomas replacement behaviors in role-playing situations. If a teacher makes changes in the physical environment, these are described in the plan. Finally, the plan specifies how instruction will be implemented in various settings and the persons responsible. Educators report that teaching positive behavior strategies as part of the regular academic program is particularly effective in teaching replacement behaviors (Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 2000).
Figure 10.6 Thomas’s behavioral intervention plan
Source: Addressing Student Problem Behavior,
Part III
: Creating Positive Intervention Plans and Supports (pp. B5–B10), Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 2000, Washington, DC: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice.
After completing all the components of the behavioral intervention plan, the IEP team describes how the plan will be evaluated. Team members describe how, when, where, and how often they will measure the problem behaviors and identify individuals who will be responsible for the evaluation. They determine a schedule for reviewing or modifying the plan based on the criteria for behavior change.
INCLUDING SUPPORTS.
The IEP team also identifies
supports
, or people and/or modifications to the environment that will assist the student to be educated with students without disabilities to the maximum extent appropriate. Students such as Thomas may need supports, as seen in Figure 10.6, such as a classroom modification and an individual with similar disabilities from the community who can provide mentoring, added to the behavioral intervention plan. Personnel supports can include the school guidance counselor, school social worker, or psychologist who works with the student to improve behavior. Or a student might work with the school mechanic, custodian, or secretary for a class period when the student needs to avoid a structured learning environment such as the classroom. The parent can provide support by assisting the student in organizing school materials and constructing a schedule for after-school activities, including homework. Other students can provide supports, too. For example, the special education teacher made arrangements with a high school student who had similar interests to meet with Thomas on a weekly basis to provide academic encouragement.
Supports can also include modifications to the environment. For example, a teacher might rearrange the room to provide more space for small-group projects. A counter along the back wall could be cleared to allow a student to complete individual assignments while standing at the counter instead of seated at a desk.
Evaluation of the Behavioral Intervention Plan
The IEP team reviews and evaluates the behavioral intervention plan during the annual meeting, but members may review the plan more frequently if necessary. If the student has met the behavioral goals and objectives, the plan should be revised to include the new goals and objectives. If the plan does not seem to be effective and there is little change in the student’s behavior, team members need to review the plan, decide whether to conduct further assessment, and develop a new plan that will produce positive changes in behavior.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
Creating Relevant Educational Experiences
Behavioral expectations are an integral aspect of the culture that surrounds us. Some families may expect children to respect and not question authority figures, whereas others encourage children to be assertive and “speak up” to make their opinions and wishes known. Thus, for some students, the culture of the school, home, and community all hold similar behavioral expectations, but other students find a marked contrast in cultural expectations as they move from home to school to “hanging out” in their neighborhoods.
The factors in schools that exacerbate inequities include curriculum and pedagogy (Nieto, 2000), as well as behavioral expectations and communication styles. Teachers can work to create culturally responsive educational experiences by building on students’ interests while providing high-quality academic instruction. Educators search out and provide information related to students’ lives and place instructional information in a context that is familiar to students. They respect and model an appreciation of individual differences and similarities and provide students with positive examples of role models. The Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence is an excellent resource that assists teachers in responding to classroom diversity. Their Web site includes research findings and standards for pedagogy.
Questions for Reflection
1. Explore the Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence Web site. What information regarding culturally relevant education did you find most helpful?
2. Consider the home culture of a student with whom you have worked. What instructional activities would you create to provide a relevant learning experience for the student?
3. WebQuests, inquiry-oriented activities in which students use Web-based information, often build on students’ interests while providing high-quality academic instruction. Describe the qualities you might find in a WebQuest that would create a relevant learning experience for students with whom you have worked.
Classroom Instruction
Setting Event
Setting events
affect the physical or emotional state of a student at any given time and play a major role in the classroom each day (Gable, Hendrickson, Tonelson, & Van Acker, 2002; Horner, Vaughn, Day, & Ard, 1996; Moss et al. 2005; Wahler & Graves, 1983). A student who has an argument with another student on the bus begins the day in a different emotional state than on another day, when a friend invites the student to share a seat. Another student who had little sleep the night before arrives in a different physical state than when her or she is well rested. These events not only influence a student’s behavior and alter the effects of reinforcement that are part of the student’s IEP but can also produce particular behaviors that may go unnoticed unless the educator looks beyond the events immediately preceding problem behaviors (Horner et al., 1996). Figure 10.7 illustrates the effects of different setting events on the behavior of a student. Usually teacher praise carries high value for this student, but because of his earlier fighting (setting event 1) or his headache (setting event 3), the value of teacher praise is reduced.
Figure 10.7 Effects of setting events on problem behaviors
Source: Adapted from “The Relationship Between Setting Events and Problem Behavior: Expanding Our Understanding of Behavioral Support,” by R. H. Horner, B. J. Vaughn, H. M. Day, and W. R. Ard, 1996, in Positive Behavioral Support: Including People with Difficult Behavior in the Community, p. 383 (L. K. Koegel, R. L. Koegel, and G. Dunlap, Eds.), Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Motivation behind Behaviors
Students with behavior problems often engage in inappropriate behavior because they consider this behavior more desirable or acceptable than the appropriate behavior. The student may not be motivated or may not see any value in the appropriate behavior. Kamps (2002) identifies a number of possible teacher interventions, depending on a student’s motivation for engaging in problem behaviors, including
• attention-motivated behavior;
• escape-motivated behavior;
• access/control-motivated behavior; and
• sensory/stimulation-motivated behavior.
1.
Attention-Motivated Behavior.
Begin by teaching appropriate attention-seeking behaviors. For example, when a student is seeking another person’s attention, an educator teaches the student to say the person’s name once and wait for the person to look at or acknowledge the student. The educator allows the student a limited number of requests for attention in each class period and keeps a visual tally of the requests, using praise when the student demonstrates the positive behavior. During class, the teacher also uses specific praise and privileges for peers who model appropriate attention-seeking behavior. The teacher avoids verbal reprimands and, only as a last resort, uses timeout.
Timeout
is a procedure whereby a student is removed from the group or activity and placed in a neutral setting for a specified period of time.
Timeout should be used sparingly for short “cool-down” periods. For example, a teacher may place a student in timeout when the student engages in violent behavior. Because timeout helps protect the safety of the student and other students, it is a helpful procedure; however, when a student is in timeout, valuable classroom learning time is lost. A student should be placed in timeout for only a few minutes.
2.
Escape-Motivated Behavior.
The teacher may begin by reviewing current classroom practices and evaluating learning activities to make sure that students have multiple opportunities for hands-on activities. The teacher structures lessons and learning activities so that easier activities are interspersed with more difficult tasks. Students are given opportunities to choose the order in which the learning activities will be completed, and the teacher provides written examples, or exemplars, of well-done activities or tasks.
The teacher encourages students to ask for help in an appropriate manner during the instructional lesson and learning activities and always responds to these requests. The teacher provides additional assistance to the student and monitors the student’s performance frequently. By reinforcing the student’s on-task behavior at 3- to 5-minute intervals, the teacher helps the student increase self-management. The teacher does not use timeout because this only serves to reinforce the student’s escape-motivated behavior.
3.
Access/Control-Motivated Behavior.
Educators begin by teaching the student acceptable ways to interact with others and request access to materials or an activity. Students also learn how to manage disappointment and anger. To control student behavior, teachers may use
contingency statements
, which include the condition that the student must satisfy before engaging in a desired behavior. For example, a teacher announces, “After all the materials are put away, you may have the remaining time to check your e-mail or listen to music. We have 10 minutes before we need to get ready to go home.”
4.
Sensory/Stimulation-Motivated Behavior.
IEP team members and other professional consultants decide whether to ignore the behavior if it does not disrupt the student’s learning or the learning of others. For behaviors that do interfere with learning, teachers interrupt and redirect them. For example, Luis constantly clicked his pen—off-on, off-on. His teacher provided a Koosh ball that allowed him the needed sensory stimulation but was not distracting to others.
Assuming Ownership in Improving Behaviors
In Chapter 9 we learned how students in one high school use Palm handhelds (PDAs) as AT to improve their academic work. PDAs also increase opportunities for students to assume ownership in improving their behaviors. When a student begins working on positive behaviors, a PDA provides an easy, efficient way to record behaviors and monitor daily progress. As part of the behavior support plan, the teacher—or student—sets up a file, perhaps in a word-processing or spreadsheet format on the classroom computer, and then downloads the file to a PDA. The student uses the system to record and manage positive behaviors. Aside from the advantages of having a “cool tool,” a student can use the PDA at any time during the day, while going to different classes, in the cafeteria, or on the bus. The PDA eliminates the problem of lost pencils or missing paper recording sheets. At the beginning of each school day, the student uploads the data to the classroom computer, where it can be added to a weekly chart.
Gradually, the student assumes more and more responsibility for managing behavior by learning new skills, replacement behaviors, and self-management strategies. The following sections describe how teachers structure positive classroom environments, provide clear expectations, and teach compliance, conflict resolution, and mediation.
Structuring Positive Classroom Environments
Supporting students with severe, persistent behavior problems requires a high level of self-awareness on the part of teachers. Teachers are realistic about their capabilities and know when to request assistance from other team members, such as other teachers, the school social worker or school psychologist, or the building administrator.
In planning instructional activities, teachers are mindful of sources of frustration for students, such as boredom, an irrelevant curriculum, and disorganized learning activities (Fitzsimmons, 1998). Teachers recognize and respond to various stages of student frustration (Figure 10.8).
Figure 10.8 The stages of frustration and examples of appropriate teacher responses
Source: Adapted from Violence and Aggression in Children and Youth, by M. K. Fitzsimmons, 1998, Reston, VA: ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education.
Teachers work to create structured and consistent, yet nurturing and caring environments, establishing trust and rapport with and among students. They hold high expectations for all students and provide high-quality academic instruction in which students are actively engaged. Teachers work to make learning fun and induce a positive mood. For example, at the beginning of the day the teacher might do the following:
• Ask students to create three goals that they would like to achieve during the day.
• Select an inspiring video segment to view and briefly discuss.
Educators can provide many opportunities throughout the day for students to make choices as they complete learning activities and assignments and strengthen appropriate behaviors. Students can choose where to sit during individual or small-group work—or where to stand. They can choose the order in which they will complete two or more assignments or which part of an assignment to complete, such as all the even-numbered items or all the odd-numbered ones. They can also choose which questions of a set to answer or how to demonstrate their achievement from among a list of possibilities.
WHAT RESEARCH SAYS ABOUT CHOICE MAKING
An emerging area of research indicates that when educators include opportunities for students to make choices during academic instruction, positive results occur. Reviews of the literature found that when students were allowed to choose the task, their accuracy and completion of academic assignments increased and disruptive behaviors decreased (Jolivette, Stichter, & McCormick, 2002; Morgan, 2006; Shogren, Faggella-Luby, Bae, & Wehmeyer, 2004).
Providing Clear Expectations
Effective approaches for promoting positive behavior begin with preventive measures for minimizing discipline problems. Educators communicate clear expectations for student behavior and provide positive and corrective feedback, and students learn to monitor their own behaviors and evaluate their progress. Teachers ensure that students are treated fairly and consistently. This section discusses establishing rules, identifying procedures, and teaching compliance.
ESTABLISHING RULES AND IDENTIFYING PROCEDURES.
Special educators, in collaboration with students, construct classroom rules, usually written statements, that describe student behavioral expectations. Through words and/or pictures, the rules illustrate what students should do, rather than not do, and are written in positive terms. When teachers involve students in developing a set of classroom rules, everyone accepts ownership of the rules. In addition, students are more likely to follow the rules and to help reinforce them with others. Classroom rules are more effective when they are developed at the beginning of the school year. The teacher keeps the list of rules relatively short—no more than five or six—and posts them in a highly visible place. The teacher begins by demonstrating (or inviting students to demonstrate) each of the rules and then reviews and refers to them frequently. The teacher is careful to consistently reinforce the classroom rules daily. Sometimes teachers must review classroom rules at the beginning of the school day and reteach them to the group or to individual students as necessary. Martin and Pear (2002, p. 212) define effective rules as rules that describe deadlines for specific behavior, even when the outcomes are delayed.
One first-grade class and their teacher developed the following set of rules and posted them at the front of the classroom for all to see.
In Our Classroom, We
• use quiet voices;
• wear our walking shoes;
• put on our listening ears; and
• keep our hands and feet to ourselves.
Teachers must follow through with consequences when a student does not follow the rules. A consequence may influence whether or how frequently the behavior occurs again. Students need to understand that there are consequences when they do not follow classroom rules. Teachers should post consequences in a visible place as a reminder.
A fifth-grade teacher posted these consequences on the classroom wall.
What Happens if I Don’t Follow the Rules:
• First time, a teacher or student reminds me.
• Second time, I receive a check mark by my name.
• Third time, I miss recess.
• Fourth time, a message is sent to my parents.
When students have difficulty following rules, teachers can help them learn to monitor their own behaviors. By using a checklist (Figure 10.9), students can observe their own behaviors, record them, and evaluate them. Self-monitoring helps students internalize their positive behaviors, and recording sheets or checklists provide a visual reminder of what is expected of them (Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 1999).
Figure 10.9 Teacher-designed self-monitoring card for students
Sometimes people confuse classroom rules with classroom procedures.
Classroom procedures
describe the steps or components of daily activities that must be followed to complete tasks. For example, a first-grade teacher posts the following classroom procedures on the bathroom wall:
• Please flush the toilet.
• Wash your hands with soap and warm water.
• Turn off the light.
A middle school teacher lists the following procedures on the classroom’s Web page regarding homework assignments:
• Carefully read the directions before beginning the assignment.
• Use a spell-checker after you complete your draft.
• Pass in your paper or send it as an attached file to your teacher on Friday.
Using Instructional Strategies for Active Responding
Teachers who use positive behavioral supports and develop learning activities that actively engage students provide an atmosphere conducive to student learning. In the following section, we examine several instructional strategies that special educators use to support and promote positive behavior in the classroom. After all, high academic expectations and active student engagement complement good classroom support. Students who are actively engaged in learning display positive classroom behaviors and a marked decrease in problem behaviors, whereas inappropriate teaching methods can exacerbate behavior problems in the classroom.
One teaching method that has broad research support for its use and effectiveness with students who have learning and behavior problems is direct instruction, which you read about in
Chapter 6
. Teachers using direct instruction can include instructional strategies that support a high level of student involvement as well as frequent and immediate feedback, such as choral responding, response cards, and guided notes.
CHORAL RESPONDING.
Choral responding requires students to respond as a group, either aloud or electronically with a hand-held clicker, to the teacher’s questions. For example, an elementary resource room teacher using choral responding asks the reading group, “What sound do you hear at the beginning of the word pumpkin?” Each child replies “puh.” By scanning the group, the teacher can monitor the children’s answers. A student who doesn’t know the answer hears the correct response. The teacher may say, “Tell me one more time.” All students can respond again, including the students who didn’t know the answer.
In an inclusive secondary classroom, the teacher uses computer technology to increase student participation. Each student uses a handheld clicker to indicate his or her choice of an answer in response to the teacher’s questions. The data projector displays the responses anonymously on the screen for all to see. This provides a quick way to assess student understanding of information without embarrassment.
WHITEBOARDS/RESPONSE CARDS.
Like choral responding, individual whiteboards or response cards actively involve students. Each student uses the board to indicate the answer to a teacher’s question. Response cards can be as simple as color-coded yes-or-no cards. The teacher might use these cards during shared-book time to provide an opportunity for each child to predict what will happen next as the children listen to a story. “Do you think that Heather will go down into the cave?” The children decide by holding up a yes or a no response card.
The teacher can use paper, cut in 3-inch by 5-inch pieces, to provide each student with a set of blank response cards. Students can write their answers on the cards and hold them up in response to the teacher’s questions. Or, students can use individual, wipeable whiteboards with markers.
WHAT THE RESEARCH SAYS ABOUT WHITEBOARDS AND RESPONSE CARDS.
Research findings support the use of response cards for increasing academic achievement in both elementary and secondary students with disabilities. In a meta-analysis of 18 studies, Randolph (2007) found that the use of response cards was more effective for students than hand raising in terms of test achievement, participation, and reduction of disruptive behavior.
Teachers who used whiteboards to encourage class participation during mathematics instruction found that the frequency of active student response was greater and there were less disruptive behaviors than when students were asked only to raise their hands to participate (Lambert, Cartledge, Heward, & Lo, 2006). Other researches, who found similar results when using response cards, further noted an increase in math quiz scores (Christle & Schuster, 2003).
GUIDED NOTES.
To help students become more actively involved in lesson activities, a middle school or high school special educator can prepare guided notes that outline the lesson material. The guided notes can include new vocabulary words, important dates, and the key ideas that the teacher wants the students to know. The teacher distributes a copy of the guided notes to each student prior to the lesson, either through e-mail or as a hard-copy handout. During the lesson, students complete the outline provided in the guided notes by listening carefully to the lecture and writing down the information.
WHAT THE RESEARCH SAYS ABOUT GUIDED NOTES.
Research studies indicated that the use of guided notes improved academic achievement for adolescents with learning and behavior problems (Hamilton, Seibert, Gardner, & Talbert-Johnson, 2000; Lazarus, 1991, 1993; Sweeney et al., 1999). Furthermore, students reported that they preferred using guided notes rather than their own notes (Hamilton et al.; Sweeney et al.).
Teaching Compliance
Teachers expect students to follow requests, directions, and classroom rules as they build affective and academic skills. Many students with severe, persistent emotional and behavioral problems demonstrate oppositional, defiant, and noncompliant behaviors. To begin to increase student compliance, a teacher can stand next to the student and state the request in a normal, unemotional voice, allowing a few seconds for compliance to begin and praising the compliant behavior (Kamps, 2002).
Successful teachers use consistent procedures and carry out the teaching strategy firmly and with confidence. Sometimes teachers inadvertently reinforce noncompliant behavior by (a) asking a student repeatedly to complete a request (thus teaching that the student doesn’t have to follow the direction the first time the teacher asks) or (b) allowing a student to negotiate delaying compliance (no consequence for continuing to play music even though class has begun; adapted from Kamps, 2002, p. 16).
Because noncompliance may be a well-learned problem behavior, special educators often need to use specific teaching strategies, such as precision requests (De Martini-Scully, Bray, & Kehle, 2000; Musser, Bray, Kehle, & Jenson, 2001), precorrection (Yu, Darch, & Rabren, 2002), differential attention (Young & Wasserman, 2002), behavioral momentum (Calderhead, Filter, & Albin, 2006; Lee, 2006), and compliance games (Sheridan, 1995–2000).
Kamps (cited in Algozzine & Kay, 2002) provides descriptions of these strategies, which are summarized here.
Precision requests
are intentional ways that teachers present a request that will maximize student compliance. Here are the steps that a special educator follows:
1. The teacher explains the request and consequences simply and clearly.
2. The teacher uses eye contact and says please.
3. The teacher waits 5 to 10 seconds for the student to comply.
4. If the student does not comply, the teacher makes a second request, “I need you to … please.”
5. If the student still does not comply, then the teacher issues the preplanned consequence.
Precorrection
consists of instruction in appropriate behaviors and reminders before the students need to use the behaviors in context. Here are the steps that a special educator follows:
1. The teacher identifies the context and the predictable problem behavior.
2. The teacher specifies the expected behavior.
3. The teacher arranges the practice setting.
A special educator uses precorrection to promote positive behavior.
4. The teacher and student rehearse the expected behavior.
5. The teacher provides strong reinforcement.
6. The teacher prompts expected behaviors.
7. The teacher monitors the expected behavior in the natural setting and context.
Differential attention
is ignoring behaviors that tend to be attention seeking, reinforcing alternative or appropriate behaviors. Here are the steps that a special educator follows:
1. The teacher ignores inappropriate behavior (breaks eye contact, does not speak to student, walks away, or engages with an appropriate student).
2. The teacher looks for opportunities to pay attention to appropriate behavior as soon as possible following misbehavior.
3. The teacher rewards appropriate behavior at a high rate.
Behavioral momentum
involves requesting two or three easy behaviors immediately prior to a difficult request in order to increase compliance. Here is how the special educator plans this strategy: The teacher identifies multiple requests that student is highly likely to follow.
IN PRACTICE
Special educators who teach students with behavioral and emotional problems must address both academic and behavioral concerns. Sometimes a student’s condition prevents the student from attending classes on a regular basis, perhaps due to the need for hospitalization or specialized treatment for an acute episode. Lack of regular attendance often adversely affects a student’s academic program and, in turn, his or her motivation, self-concept, and self-esteem. Students with challenging and problem behaviors, like students with other disabilities, require highly trained special educators who demonstrate (a) sensitivity to individual needs, (b) knowledge and skills in designing and implementing appropriate instruction, and (c) high ethical standards.
Classroom Focus
Jeremiah is a ninth-grade student who has attended specialized schools for several years, where he could receive intensive counseling and therapy for antisocial behaviors and anger management. After demonstrating improved performance, he transferred back to his community school. Jeremiah is eligible for special education under the category of ED (emotional disturbance). Although Jeremiah scores within the average range on intelligence tests, he is substantially below grade level on standardized achievement tests in English, mathematics, social studies, and science. Jeremiah still demonstrates difficulty in cooperating with peers for any extended period of time because of a quick temper and limited social skills. When he becomes argumentative and his behaviors begin to escalate, the classroom teacher sends him to the principal’s office.
Working Toward Solutions
Levi Jacobs, Jeremiah’s special educator, discusses her work with Jeremiah, “The IEP team developed a new plan for Jeremiah. As part of the plan, I am working closely with the classroom teacher to increase positive behaviors. Last week, in talking with Jeremiah, I learned that he loves to solve math puzzles. So each day one of us teachers puts a new visual puzzle on the board. He seems to be very motivated to be the first student in the group to solve the puzzle.”
Levi continues, “We plan to use his interest with puzzles to introduce him to a small-group project with his peers. As part of a geometry unit, students will be designing and making their own puzzles. During the free period at the end of the school day, Jeremiah will meet with me for individualized instruction and simulated practice in working with a small group of peers. At the same time, I will introduce strategies that he can use to remove himself from a frustrating situation before an outburst.”
What the Research Says
According to the National Longitudinal Transition Study—2 (2006), teachers report that most students with disabilities in Grades 7–12 control their behavior well (46%) or very well (33%). The remaining group, or approximately 21% of students with disabilities, engages in problem behaviors in the classroom. These behaviors involve primarily arguing and fighting.
Teachers report that students were primarily disciplined with in-school rather than out-of-school suspensions. When examined by gender, researchers found interesting demographic differences. Although both boys and girls were reported to argue and fight about equally, teachers reported almost twice as many disciplinary actions for boys.
MyEducationLab: Your Turn
How might you minimize behavior problems in your classroom? What precautions might you take to ensure fair and equitable treatment of students by gender and by race? What might you do differently if you were working with older students rather than younger students? To explore these questions further, go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. Then watch the videos entitled “Managing Behavior: Preschool” and “Teacher Praise” and then share your ideas with other members of the class.
Next, explore other ways to promote positive behaviors in the classroom and some of the controversies related to working with students with behavioral and emotional problems. Read the articles entitled “A Profile of Bullying at School” and “Discipline and the Special Education Student” and be prepared to discuss the key concepts of the articles with your peers.
Compliance games
include reinforcement systems designed to reward student compliance to teacher requests. Here is how the games work
Prior to a task or assignment
1. Students are divided into teams.
2. The teams select specific/unique compliance phrase (e.g., Sure I will; Sure, anytime; or No problem).
3. Students receive points for their team for saying the phrase and complying with requests.
4. Teams earn rewards for reaching compliance goals.
Teaching Conflict Resolution
Conflict resolution
is a group of positive approaches that a facilitator uses to assist two or more individuals to resolve conflict in daily life. Conflict resolution concepts can be taught alone or within the standard school curriculum. Powell, McLaughlin, Savage, and Zehm (2001) describe three steps of conflict resolution:
FIRST STEP: NEGOTIATION.
Negotiation is a process whereby students attempt to work out an agreement. The goal is to arrive at a win-win solution, one that benefits both students. The steps in the negotiation process are (Johnson & Johnson, as cited in Powell et al., 2001):
a. Describe what each student wants.
b. Describe what each student feels.
c. Exchange reasons for specifying positions that have created the conflict.
d. Understand each other’s position.
e. Invent options for mutual benefit.
f. Reach an agreement that is mutually beneficial.
SECOND STEP: MEDIATION.
When students cannot reach an agreement by themselves, a third party becomes involved. Many schools use
peer mediation
, a process that involves students who are trained in the negotiation process and who act as a third party.
Before mediation begins, a period of time is provided for each student to cool off; then each student must agree to make a commitment to the mediation process. The mediator works to keep the discussion focused on the conflict and not sidetracked. The role of the mediator is to assist the two parties in finding a solution and to facilitate the process so that students can learn how to use it on their own. When an agreement is reached, it is written down and everyone signs it. When an agreement cannot be reached, the process moves to arbitration.
THIRD STEP: ARBITRATION.
Arbitration is a process whereby a solution to the conflict is imposed by a third party, such as a special educator or counselor. Sometimes the arbitrator asks students to submit a written solution to the conflict and explains that the fairest one will be selected
10.4 Strengthening School and Community Capacity
Schoolwide Behavior Support Systems
Because many students need positive behavior instruction, schools are reexamining traditional discipline procedures and providing opportunities for students to learn self-discipline. There are several common features of schoolwide behavioral support systems:
• Total staff commitment to managing behavior, whatever approach is taken
• Clearly defined and communicated expectations and rules
• Consequences and clearly stated procedures for correcting rule-breaking behaviors
• An instructional component for teaching students self-control and/or social skill strategies
• A support plan to address the needs of students with chronic, challenging behaviors (Blum, 2005)
For students with identified disabilities, IDEA mandates specific disciplinary action when students violate codes of conduct, school rules, or present a danger to themselves or others (Figure 10.10). As part of any discipline action and possible change of placement, the IEP team must review all relevant information in the student’s file to determine more information about the student’s behavior that caused the violation and if the behavior is a manifestation of the student’s disability. If the team decides that this was indeed the case, then the school must take immediate steps to remedy the student’s program. The team must conduct a functional behavioral assessment, unless the school has already completed such an assessment, and implement a behavioral intervention plan. If the student already has a behavioral intervention plan, the team must review the plan and modify it as necessary (Figure 10.11).
Figure 10.10 IDEA and discipline of students with disabilities
Figure 10.11 Manifestation determination and IDEA requirements
Snapshot: John Fuller School District
Administrators and educators at the John Fuller School District are in the third year of implementing a districtwide positive behavior support system. The first year, teachers agreed on a districtwide
code of conduct
(Figure 10.12). A code of conduct defines the behavior that teachers, administrators and other school staff, and parents expect of students. Sometimes students, along with teachers and other school personnel, sign their names to a public display of the school’s code of conduct. When students do not follow the code, teachers use a standard set of schoolwide disciplinary procedures. When the behavior escalates beyond typical minor classroom violations, the procedures include a social cognitive problem-solving component that asks the students, in writing, to do the following:
Figure 10.12 Schoolwide code of conduct from the John Fuller Elementary School
Source: Adapted from the Franklin Elementary School-Wide Behavior Management Plan 2006—2007. Retrieved July 26, 2007, from http://schools.beps.org/schools/ces/franklin/pdf/FES=BehaviorM=Manage-ment=Plan
• Describe what happened.
• Describe what the student did.
• Identify which conduct principles were violated.
• Explain the effect on the student and others.
• Specify what needs to happen.
• Articulate the consequences.
• Plan how to prevent the transgression from happening again.
In the second year, to assist students in learning
self-discipline
, a process that involves learning how to exert self-control and manage one’s own behaviors, the teachers established a districtwide behavioral support system in which students have the chance to earn points for good behavior and can exchange the points for the privilege of being a
self-manager
—a role that allows a student to carry out special tasks, such as running errands. As part of the self-manager program, teachers give students a “Caught You” award when they catch a student exemplifying one or more of the behaviors in the code of conduct. The teacher writes a brief description of the positive behavior observed on the “I got caught” sticker, which can be worn by the student or displayed in the classroom or hallway.
During the third year, the teachers developed social skills lessons for classroom instruction and focused on strategies for dealing with the needs of students with chronic behavioral problems. They created crisis-prevention strategies and family-support networks. Educators and administrators are pleased with having a consistent, efficient process that supports both students and teachers.
Working with Professionals in Community Agencies
Special educators work closely with professionals in local and regional community agencies. For example, social workers, mental health counselors, psychologists, and consulting psychiatrists may be involved, along with special educators, occupational therapists, physical therapists, and speech and language pathologists, in delivering services in outpatient mental health treatment centers. Let us take a closer look at how these professionals would work together to help Jake, who is 15 years old.
Snapshot: Jake’s Evaluation and Treatment
Staff at the intensive outpatient mental health treatment center are evaluating Jake while providing crisis stabilization and treatment. This is the third outpatient treatment for Jake, who has episodes of aggressive behavior and has been diagnosed with intermittent explosive disorder. According to DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000, pp. 663–667), this disorder involves discrete episodes in which the individual is unable to resist aggressive impulses that result in serious acts of violence or destruction of property. Jake has a history of violent, aggressive, and oppositional behavior at home. After threatening to hurt his mother with a knife, Jake was referred to the center, and school personnel have been working with Jake’s out-reach social worker and psychiatrist.
As part of Jake’s evaluation, the center is using a
strength-based assessment
. This assessment approach measures skills, achievements, and characteristics that create a sense of personal accomplishment, contribute to satisfying relationships, and help the individual to deal with adversity and stress (Rudolph & Epstein, 2002).
Once Jake’s initial evaluation was completed, a team meeting was arranged. The team consisted of Jake, his mother and grandmother, his primary therapist at the treatment center, a child protective service caseworker, the school counselor, Jake’s best friend, his favorite special educator, and his math teacher.
The team initially focused on how to promote Jake’s strengths. After reviewing Jake’s intrapersonal and academic strengths, team members made several recommendations to support Jake in pursuing his interests, including joining the school’s intramural basketball team, becoming a peer tutor in math, pursuing volunteer work, and structuring free time with peers through participation in supervised community activities.
The team then addressed areas for skill development, including improving interpersonal and affective skills as well as increasing family involvement. The team agreed to work on the affective skills through Jake’s participation in an intensive anger-management program for youth and their families. Jake also agreed to meet with the school counselor to discuss difficulties he may be having with peers and to establish concrete goals in an effort to increase his understanding of the consequences of his actions.
The team planned to provide support to Jake’s mother in developing behavior support, problem solving, and communication skills through in-home Family Preservation Services, a division of the state’s department of mental health. Jake’s family agreed to plan a meal together at least three times per week and hold meetings at least once a week to build family communication (adapted from Rudolph & Epstein, 2002).
Tapping Community Mentors
A valuable resource for educators is the development of community mentors who can be linked with students. A mentor is typically an older, established member of the business community or a retired person who makes a commitment to be a young person’s guide over a period of time (Waller, 2002). The mentor can be a continuous presence in the student’s life, “seeing potential, challenging, encouraging, demonstrating, as well as providing resources and access” (p. 14).
What the Research Says About Community Mentoring
In Hawaii, the Wai‘anae High School Hawaiian Studies Program (Yamauchi, 2003) serves native Hawaiian students in a predominantly low-income community. The program consists of four core elements:
• Contextualization of instruction within students’ home and school backgrounds
• Joint productive activity between teachers, students, and community mentors
• “Detracking” of students
• Teaming and looping of teachers
Research to Practice
Dropout Prevention
Students with mild and moderate disabilities are at high risk for dropping out of school before high school graduation. To address this concern, educators have examined ways of reaching students with disabilities at the middle school level. Research on these dropout-prevention programs shows promising results (Christenson, Sinclair, Evelo, & Thurlow, 1995; Edgar & Johnson, 1995; Thornton, 1995).
Some successful prevention programs target specific groups of students. For example, the Achievement for Latinos through Academic Success (ALAS) program is an effective research-based dropout-prevention program for high-risk Mexican youth, including those with disabilities, who live in high-poverty urban neighborhoods (What Works Clearing-house, 2006). Somers and Piliawsky (2004) describe a prevention program targeted to urban African American adolescents. A major finding was that students appeared to benefit from working with adults who cared about their success.
The Belief Academy (Edgar, Parker, Siegel, & Johnson, 1994) emphasizes accelerated acquisition of basic skills. The program also provides social support and family case management to address out-of-school issues that affect learning (medical care, housing, family counseling). Both this and the ALAS program include the following components: maintaining persistent, long-term contact with students; adapting school rules; establishing discipline procedures and policies for students; and facilitating student participation in school-sponsored activities.
Questions for Reflection
1. What are some other ways schools are working on dropout prevention?
2. What are the current statistics on school dropouts among students with and without disabilities?
Instruction is community based and focuses on weekly fieldwork within the community with teachers and community mentors. During their fieldwork, students learn from their teachers and community mentors about concepts that are valued in the community. For example, taking care of the land through archaeological and environmental projects is consistent with the traditional Hawaiian value m~;lama i ka ‘m~;ina (p. 384).
According to the research, Hawaiian students’ grades improve the longer they remain in the program, and they are less likely to drop out of school. These students think more about career and postsecondary education than students not enrolled in the program. Finally, the students report that they feel more connected to their school and community.
Students with and without disabilities learn about their community through field-based research.
Collaborating with Families
Educators can draw on natural mentors, too. Mentoring is a long-established aspect of many families. Siblings, parents, grandparents, and aunts and uncles may have provided a support system since the student was a young child. In some cultures, such as among the Navajos of the southwestern United States, people believe that mentoring is a birthright, and each person is expected to fulfill individual responsibilities to relatives.
Snapshot: Uncle Teles
Among the Dine (Navajo) people, the maternal uncle mentors his sisters’ children. In many families, his responsibilities include shepherding his nieces and nephews through their education. Teles, for example, is a young attorney and a college professor in a large metropolitan area in the Southwest, several hours’ drive from his tribal home on the Navajo reservation. Since his six nieces have been in grade school, Teles has inspired them to set goals and achieve in school. He challenges them and provides them with both emotional and material support as they progress through each phase of their educational development. Guided by Teles, the three oldest girls graduated from their border town (the town adjacent to the reservation) high school a year early and subsequently moved to the city where Teles lives. Currently, four of his nieces, one of whom has an infant, live with Teles in his home in the city. Heather, an eighth grader, is continuing her education via home schooling as she undergoes her second round of chemotherapy for bone cancer (adapted from Waller, 2002, p. 14).
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Summary
• Students with problem behaviors do not fit into any one category; rather, they exhibit a wide variety of behaviors, from extremely aggressive and oppositional to extremely withdrawn and anxious.
• To assess student needs, educators use a functional behavioral assessment.
• Planning and implementing instruction involves understanding what motivates behavior and using a behavioral intervention plan that specifies the skills or replacement behaviors that the student needs.
• Educators help strengthen school and community capacity by using schoolwide behavior support systems, collaborating with families, and working with other professionals in community agencies.
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
Describe a rationale for using research-based practices in preparing to teach students with disabilities.
Discuss what beginning teachers should know about federal legislation and the education of students with disabilities.
Describe the special education process.
Compare and contrast the various settings in which special educators work and their myriad and varied teaching assignments.
· Notebook
·
1.1 Preparing to Teach
Snapshot: Meet Kalynda
“Hi! My name is Kalynda—but you can call me ‘K.’ I love to Rollerblade with my friends. My favorite subject in school is art. I have a learning disability, but I think I’m doing well in school because I have learned to be very organized, to keep up with my work, and to ask for help if I need it.”
“My special education teacher has taught me some really neat things, like how to check my writing before I pass it in. She helped me make a cue sheet that I use to check my paper myself to make sure that it has all the necessary requirements. Writing is really important in our school, and everybody has a portfolio of their work. Like I am really, really proud of mine. Last week I added a paper to my portfolio that demonstrates how I am working toward one of my school standards in literacy, showing how we understand a story from the point of view of one of the characters.
“My special education teacher has taught me how to be independent and to become a self-advocate. She invited some leaders from the business community to come speak to our class. One person was an artist who uses discarded items in her sculptures. This artist is so cool, and she also has a learning disability. It was so great to meet her and to hear her story, and sometimes I think I’ll be an artist, too. She also talked about individual rights and laws for people with disabilities. It’s hard for me to remember all the things that she said. Maybe I’ll have a chance to learn them again some day.”
… and Her Mother
“Bringing up Kalynda has been quite an experience for me as a single mother. I remember her first years of school were pretty difficult. She didn’t like to sit still long enough to listen to a story and then, in the early grades, she had a great deal of difficulty in learning how to read, and I didn’t know why. It was a relief when the IEP team determined that she had specific learning disabilities in reading and writing.
“I’m pleased with her progress now. Her teacher keeps in close contact with me, letting me know her successes. She is taking an interest in writing short stories and poetry. In fact, her teacher is encouraging her to submit some of her work to the school newspaper!
“When Kalynda experiences difficulties, her teacher lets me know too. This way we can address concerns before Kalynda becomes discouraged with her school-work. Like last week, her teacher called to let me know that Kalynda was having some difficulty in math class and wasn’t turning in her homework. Now that I know that Kalynda has homework assignments, I can follow up with her at home. Usually I just need to remind her, but sometimes I need to limit her cell [phone] use, especially the instant messaging.”
Preparing to teach students like Kalynda begins with learning about federal legislation and how these mandates guide a special educator’s work with students, families, other educators, and professionals. As you continue reading this textbook, you will learn more about students with mild and moderate disabilities and the characteristics of the most common disabilities, including learning disabilities, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, other health impairments, emotional disturbance, mental retardation, and autism spectrum disorders. And you’ll study effective research-based methods and instructional strategies for teaching students with mild and moderate disabilities.
Today’s schools, state departments of education, and the federal government require teachers to use
research-based practices
, which refer to a body of research that supports the effectiveness of teaching methods, strategies, therapies, supplemental aids, and services in the classroom. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) defines the term scientifically based research as “…research (that) involves the application of rigorous, systematic, and objective procedures to obtain reliable and valid knowledge relevant to education activities and programs” (Sec. 300.35). According to IDEA, scientifically based research should focus on methods and instructional strategies. Educators sometimes refer to this as evidence-based practice.
Beginning educators who study, practice, and later implement these procedures know that they can deliver effective instruction to a wide variety of learners. Today research findings continue to inform our practices, especially in the areas of brain-based research. In
Chapters 2
and 3 we look more closely at this research and the effects on learning and behavior.
By studying research-based practices, special education teachers develop an important knowledge base of effective methods and strategies. When using these practices in the classroom, teachers have some assurance that their instruction will be effective. The work of a special educator is both demanding and rewarding. This book starts your journey!
As you read this first chapter, think about the students and the teachers you may have already met. How do the federal laws described in this chapter influence the education and related services that students receive—or, perhaps, do not receive? Can you describe some of the job responsibilities of a special education teacher that you know? How are these responsibilities tied to federal and state legislation?
1.1 Preparing to Teach
Snapshot: Meet Kalynda
“Hi! My name is Kalynda—but you can call me ‘K.’ I love to Rollerblade with my friends. My favorite subject in school is art. I have a learning disability, but I think I’m doing well in school because I have learned to be very organized, to keep up with my work, and to ask for help if I need it.”
“My special education teacher has taught me some really neat things, like how to check my writing before I pass it in. She helped me make a cue sheet that I use to check my paper myself to make sure that it has all the necessary requirements. Writing is really important in our school, and everybody has a portfolio of their work. Like I am really, really proud of mine. Last week I added a paper to my portfolio that demonstrates how I am working toward one of my school standards in literacy, showing how we understand a story from the point of view of one of the characters.
“My special education teacher has taught me how to be independent and to become a self-advocate. She invited some leaders from the business community to come speak to our class. One person was an artist who uses discarded items in her sculptures. This artist is so cool, and she also has a learning disability. It was so great to meet her and to hear her story, and sometimes I think I’ll be an artist, too. She also talked about individual rights and laws for people with disabilities. It’s hard for me to remember all the things that she said. Maybe I’ll have a chance to learn them again some day.”
… and Her Mother
“Bringing up Kalynda has been quite an experience for me as a single mother. I remember her first years of school were pretty difficult. She didn’t like to sit still long enough to listen to a story and then, in the early grades, she had a great deal of difficulty in learning how to read, and I didn’t know why. It was a relief when the IEP team determined that she had specific learning disabilities in reading and writing.
“I’m pleased with her progress now. Her teacher keeps in close contact with me, letting me know her successes. She is taking an interest in writing short stories and poetry. In fact, her teacher is encouraging her to submit some of her work to the school newspaper!
“When Kalynda experiences difficulties, her teacher lets me know too. This way we can address concerns before Kalynda becomes discouraged with her school-work. Like last week, her teacher called to let me know that Kalynda was having some difficulty in math class and wasn’t turning in her homework. Now that I know that Kalynda has homework assignments, I can follow up with her at home. Usually I just need to remind her, but sometimes I need to limit her cell [phone] use, especially the instant messaging.”
Preparing to teach students like Kalynda begins with learning about federal legislation and how these mandates guide a special educator’s work with students, families, other educators, and professionals. As you continue reading this textbook, you will learn more about students with mild and moderate disabilities and the characteristics of the most common disabilities, including learning disabilities, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, other health impairments, emotional disturbance, mental retardation, and autism spectrum disorders. And you’ll study effective research-based methods and instructional strategies for teaching students with mild and moderate disabilities.
Using Research-Based Practices
Today’s schools, state departments of education, and the federal government require teachers to use
research-based practices
, which refer to a body of research that supports the effectiveness of teaching methods, strategies, therapies, supplemental aids, and services in the classroom. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) defines the term scientifically based research as “…research (that) involves the application of rigorous, systematic, and objective procedures to obtain reliable and valid knowledge relevant to education activities and programs” (Sec. 300.35). According to IDEA, scientifically based research should focus on methods and instructional strategies. Educators sometimes refer to this as evidence-based practice.
Beginning educators who study, practice, and later implement these procedures know that they can deliver effective instruction to a wide variety of learners. Today research findings continue to inform our practices, especially in the areas of brain-based research. In Chapters 2 and 3 we look more closely at this research and the effects on learning and behavior.
By studying research-based practices, special education teachers develop an important knowledge base of effective methods and strategies. When using these practices in the classroom, teachers have some assurance that their instruction will be effective. The work of a special educator is both demanding and rewarding. This book starts your journey!
As you read this first chapter, think about the students and the teachers you may have already met. How do the federal laws described in this chapter influence the education and related services that students receive—or, perhaps, do not receive? Can you describe some of the job responsibilities of a special education teacher that you know? How are these responsibilities tied to federal and state legislation?
Previous section
Next section
1.2 Federal Legislation and the Education of Students With Disabilities
For many years, federal legislation has greatly shaped how special education and related services are provided, along with the settings where students with disabilities receive their education. Beginning in the mid-1970s, a series of new federal laws had a major impact on children and youth with disabilities. These laws came about because parents and others who cared deeply about the civil rights of individuals with disabilities had a vision of what the future should hold.
In 1975, as a result of parent advocacy, court decisions, and many other efforts, Congress passed federal legislation that provided free, appropriate public education for students with disabilities at no cost to their parents. Furthermore, the legislation stipulated that schools offer a variety of settings that provide the most appropriate placement options and from which students with disabilities can benefit. For many students this meant being able to enroll in their local community schools. Since then there have been numerous amendments to this law, today known as IDEA.
IDEA
IDEA, also known as Public Law 108-446, changed earlier legislation that focused on ensuring that children and youth with disabilities receive a free, appropriate public education and, at the same time, have their individual educational needs determined and addressed. IDEA requires that students with disabilities have access to the general education curriculum (the same curriculum that students without disabilities have) to the maximum extent possible. IDEA expands the scope of education to include preparing students for employment and independent living. Further, IDEA strengthens the role of parents and ensures that they have meaningful opportunities to participate in the education of their child.
IDEA focuses on excellence, high standards, and high expectations, in addition to the earlier mandate of providing a free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment. Teaching and learning are the primary foci of IDEA legislation. This comprehensive mandate for children and youth includes both special education and related services.
IDEA requires that students with disabilities have access to the general education curriculum.
Defining Special Education
IDEA defines
special education
as specially designed instruction, at no cost to parents, to meet the unique needs of a student with a disability. The instruction may be conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and institutions, or in other settings.
Specially designed instruction
means
1. adapting content, methodology, or delivery of instruction to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability; and
2. ensuring that the child has access to the general curriculum so that the child can meet the educational standards that apply to all children. (Sec.300.39)
Eligibility for Special Education Services
To be eligible for special education services, a student must have a disability, and that disability must adversely affect the student’s education performance. IDEA describes 14 categories of disability (
Table 1.1
). Some states follow these federal categories, whereas others use slightly different terms and definitions for describing disabilities.
When a student with a disability is eligible for special education, members of the student’s IEP team develop a written document that describes the goals that the student will meet during the year. The individualized education program (IEP) includes such information as who will provide the specially designed instruction, where it will be provided, and how achievement will be measured. Six basic principles establish the framework for providing special education and related services described in the IEP.
Table 1.1 Disability Areas Described by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
|
Definition |
|
|
A developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age 3, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. |
|
|
Deaf–Blindness |
Accompanying hearing and visual impairments that, combined, produce severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or blindness. |
|
Deafness |
A hearing impairment that is so severe that linguistic information cannot be processed through hearing, with or without amplification, adversely affecting the child’s educational performance. |
| Developmental delay |
A delay in one or more of the following areas: physical development, including fine and gross motor, cognitive, communication, social or emotional, or adaptive development. Some states have adopted this term for children from ages 3 to 9 so that these children can receive special education services. |
| Emotional disturbance |
A condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree, adversely affecting a child’s educational performance: 1. An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors. 2. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers. 3. Inappropriate behaviors or feelings under normal circumstances. 4. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression. 5. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems. The term includes schizophrenia. Emotional disturbance does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance. |
|
Hearing impairment |
An impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. |
| Mental retardation |
A condition in which there is significant subaverage general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. |
|
Multiple disabilities |
Concomitant impairments (such as mental retardation–blindness, mental retardation–orthopedic impairment, etc.), the combination of which causes such severe educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for one of the impairments. |
|
Orthopedic impairment |
A severe orthopedic impairment that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term includes impairments caused by a congenital anomaly, impairments caused by disease, and impairments from other causes, such as amputations and fractures or burns that cause contractures. |
| Other health impairment |
Limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the education environment. These impairments are due to chronic or acute health problems, such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, or sickle cell anemia, and adversely affect a child’s educational performance. |
|
Specific learning disability |
A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language, either spoken or written, which may be manifested in an impaired ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. It does not apply to children who have learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, mental retardation, emotional disturbance, or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantages. |
|
Speech or language impairment |
A communication disorder such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely affects the child’s educational performance. |
|
Traumatic brain injury |
An acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term applies to open or closed head injuries resulting in impairments in one or more areas, such as cognition, language, memory, attention, reasoning, abstract thinking, judgment, problem solving, sensory, perceptual and motor abilities, psychosocial behavior, physical functions, information processing, and speech. The term does not apply to brain injuries that are congenital or degenerative or to brain injuries induced by birth trauma. |
|
Visual impairment, including blindness |
An impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects the child’s educational performance. The term includes both partial sight and blindness. |
Source: Adapted from IDEA 34 C.F.R., Sec. 300.8.
Basic Principles of IDEA
FREE APPROPRIATE PUBLIC EDUCATION.
Free appropriate public education (FAPE)
ensures that no child or youth (3 to 21 years of age) will be excluded from an appropriate public education because of a disability, including students with profound disabilities, students with disruptive behaviors, and students with contagious diseases. Educators sometimes use the term zero reject to describe this mandate of enrolling all students. To help pay the extra cost of providing the special education and related services associated with FAPE, IDEA gives money to state agencies and local schools. Children and youth with disabilities receive FAPE in the least restrictive environment.
APPROPRIATE EVALUATION.
Educators must determine whether a student has a disability and, if so, whether the student needs special education and related services. Special education teachers and other professionals conducting assessments must ensure that appropriate approaches are used. Assessment approaches should be free from bias and discrimination and should be used for the purposes for which they were intended. Educators and other professionals involved in the assessment process are required to follow assessment stipulations outlined in IDEA (
Figure 1.1
). If the student is eligible for special education services, teachers conduct additional assessments to determine the student’s educational needs. The student’s IEP team uses the results of these assessments in planning the IEP.
THE INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PROGRAM.
Each student with a disability must have an IEP that describes what the student can do, the student’s strengths, and the student’s needs. The IEP also includes a great deal of additional information, such as the educational goals and how they will be measured. Working together, a team develops the IEP. The members of the team include
Figure 1.1 General requirements of appropriate evaluation according to IDEA
Source: Adapted from IDEA 34 C.F.R., Sec. 300.304.
• the student’s parents;
• at least one regular education teacher;
• at least one special education teacher;
• a person who is qualified to provide or supervise specially designed instruction to meet the unique needs of children with disabilities and is knowledgeable about the availability of resources and the general curriculum;
• a person who can interpret the instructional implications of evaluation results;
• other individuals who have knowledge or special expertise regarding the child, including related services personnel as appropriate; and
• the student, if appropriate.
School personnel make every effort to ensure that the parents or guardians of the student are present at the IEP meeting. Parents should be notified at least several days prior to the meeting, and educators should make conscientious efforts to schedule the meeting at a mutually agreed upon time. If the parents are unable to attend the IEP meeting, the school must use other methods to ensure their participation, including individual or conference telephone calls or video conferencing. School personnel can conduct an IEP meeting without a parent in attendance, but the school is required by IDEA to maintain a record of the attempts to contact the family.
LEAST RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENT.
The principle of the least restrictive environment is based on the requirement that schools must offer a variety of instructional settings to provide the most appropriate placement options for students with disabilities and from which these students can benefit. These include general education classes, resource rooms, special classes, special schools, and homebound or hospital placements.
The IEP team must consider accommodations, modifications, aids, and supports to the general education curriculum before removing a student with a disability from the regular classroom. A student is not removed from a general education classroom unless the student cannot be educated there successfully, even after the school has provided accommodations, modifications, aids, and supports. Moreover, a student with a disability cannot be required to demonstrate specific levels of performance before being considered for a regular class placement. If the IEP team decides that a student cannot benefit from the general education class, the team identifies the least restrictive setting that is appropriate for the student and from which the student can benefit.
PROCEDURAL SAFEGUARDS.
IDEA specifies procedural safeguards to ensure that the rights of parents and children are protected during the assessment process and the delivery of services. These procedures are sometimes referred to as due process and are outlined in
Figure 1.2
. Due process also guarantees parents or personnel in schools or agencies the right to an impartial hearing conducted by a hearing officer when disagreements occur. Either a parent or school personnel can request a hearing if differences cannot be resolved informally.
PARENT AND STUDENT PARTICIPATION IN DECISION MAKING.
Several of the previous principles described ways that parents and students can participate with teachers and other professionals during the process of planning, implementing, and evaluating services for the student. Parents and students bring added knowledge about the student’s problem and expertise in helping to create solutions. Their participation brings shared ownership of the student’s IEP and encourages the student to take responsibility for the outcomes.
The Rehabilitation Act Amendments
The Rehabilitation Act, first authorized in 1973, has been amended and reauthorized numerous times, much like IDEA. Section 504 protects the rights of students with disabilities in programs and activities in public schools and other programs that receive federal financial assistance from the
U.S. Department of Education
. Much like a large net, Section 504 casts a wide circle to assist students who need services but are not eligible to receive special education services under IDEA (
Figure 1.3
).
Figure 1.2 Procedural safeguards described by IDEA
Source: Adapted from IDEA 34 C.F.R., Secs. 300.501–520.
Section 504
The provisions of Section 504 and IDEA work well together in helping to provide a range of services for students. Similar to IDEA, Section 504 requires FAPE for eligible students, including individually designed instruction; however, Section 504 uses a broader definition of individual disability areas and other conditions. Examples of other conditions that are typically covered under Section 504 include
• communicable diseases such as tuberculosis;
• medical conditions such as allergies and heart disease;
• temporary medical conditions due to an illness or accident;
• behavioral difficulties; and
• drug or alcohol addiction.
Because of the broader definition provided by Section 504, students who do not meet the criteria for a specific disability under IDEA may be eligible to receive services and accommodations under Section 504.
When school personnel decide that a student needs services under Section 504, they meet to write a plan, commonly referred to as a 504 Plan. In developing a 504 Plan, teachers work with students and their parents to identify and list ideas that will help the student succeed in the classroom. For example, the teacher might begin by encouraging the student to think about what helps in keeping track of assignments when he or she must be absent from school. After they brainstorm ideas, they identify one or two suggestions to try. The teacher, parent, student, and other team members also discuss the student’s need for additional tutoring, during long periods of absence. From these suggestions and by working with the parents, educators develop the 504 Plan (
Figure 1.4
).
Figure 1.3 General student body in a public school
Source: Adapted from Student Access: A Resource Guide for Educators (p. 6), Council of Administrators of Special Education, n.d., Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children. Reprinted by permission.
No Child Left Behind Act
The No Child Left Behind Act (P.L. 107-110), designed to improve student achievement, placed renewed emphasis on key provisions, including
• early childhood education and the development of language skills and prereading skills;
• assessments that align with state academic content and achievement standards;
• ongoing assessments each year in Grades 3 to 8 and at least once during Grades 10 to 12; and
• detailed report cards to parents concerning their child’s progress;
This legislation puts special emphasis on the need to implement educational programs and instruction that can demonstrate their effectiveness. Today educators carefully review research findings to help inform classroom practices. Throughout each chapter in this textbook, you will read about relevant research related to teaching and learning and students with disabilities.
Figure 1.4 Example of a 504 plan
Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act
The Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act (P.L. 109-270) provides an increased focus on academic achievement of students in career and technical education. This includes improving student achievement and preparing the student for further learning and for postsecondary education and career preparation. This legislation promotes reform and innovation in career and technical education to assist students in acquiring the skills and knowledge to meet state and national academic standards and industry-recognized skill standards. Secondary students with disabilities need to be able to make connections between their academic and career classes. This federal law assists teachers in linking academic, career, and technical instruction in secondary and postsecondary classrooms by encouraging students to obtain experiences in all aspects of an industry, involving parents and employers, and providing links between secondary and postsecondary education.
Students, both with and without disabilities, must meet high achievement standards.
Keeping Current
Educators working with students with disabilities must be knowledgeable about current federal laws on education, especially those addressing special education services. To check current legislation, they can access Thomas Legislative Information, a Web site provided by the U.S. Congress that allows the visitor to read the full text of any law passed since 1992. This site provides the most thorough coverage of legislation related to individuals with disabilities and the field of special education.
The U.S. Department of Education maintains a Web site with current and fast-breaking news. This site also has a searchable database for information regarding changes to federal laws. From this site you may link to the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services Web site. The Office of Hearing and Appeals provides a searchable database of decisions involving the U.S. Department of Education and recipients of federal education funds. Questions regarding federal and state requirements for the education of students with disabilities can be answered at another Web site, EdLaw. This Web site contains a rich source of legal information for parents and professionals.
1.3 The Special Education Process
Snapshot: Yi-Nan Chen
Yi-Nan Chen, a special educator at Central School, meets us at the school entrance and invites us in to visit her school and to talk about her work with students with disabilities. After a short tour of the building, Yi-Nan takes us to her classroom, where we ask her to explain how teachers are alerted that a student may have a disability. She begins, “Each week, the teachers in my building come together to discuss students who are not doing well academically or who have problem behaviors. We address difficulties that students are experiencing in the classroom and brainstorm solutions. Sometimes our collective ideas and support for each other provide teachers with helpful suggestions that they might not have considered otherwise.
“We also have an early intervention process for students experiencing difficulty with reading or math. This intervention provides a student with more intensive instruction than most students typically need, to see if the student will respond to the intervention. We monitor student progress—or lack of—as we collect information on student work. When teachers feel that a student continues to experience problems, they refer the student to the multidisciplinary team, sometimes called the child study team, to see if, in fact, the child has a disability and is eligible to receive special education services.
“Let me give you an example of a recent situation. One of the teachers—we affectionately call her ‘Mrs. B.’—is concerned about a student in her class named Arjun. Arjun’s family recently moved to our city from Sri Lanka. At our weekly meetings, we have discussed Arjun’s difficulties and offered suggestions for Mrs. B. to try in the classroom. Arjun is having difficulty academically and socially. He doesn’t seem to care about his work and he displays little emotion. In fact, he is very quiet—maybe too quiet—because he hardly speaks to his classmates. Lately he is showing a lack of interest in school in general, and his attendance has been poor. Mrs. B. has been providing some individual help to Arjun, and she rearranged the classroom so that students could work together on small-group projects. She hoped that this would increase Arjun’s interest and motivation. Mrs. B also tried several other interventions that often help students; however, this time there has been little success.
“Finally, Mrs. B. contacted Arjun’s parents about her concerns. It seems that they, too, were worried about their child’s progress. At home he complains about school and lately has been refusing to go. When Mrs. B. discussed referring Arjun to the multidisciplinary team, his parents wanted to know more about the process that Arjun would go through and what services might be available for him.”
As you read the following sections, consider the special education process that Arjun’s classroom teacher followed. What role did the special education teacher play? How were Arjun’s parents involved?
When Students Experience Difficulties
Many schools use educator teams to identify and address academic, social, and behavioral problems. This process involves general and special educators, who work together as a student-assistance team. When a teacher has questions and concerns about a student, team members collaborate to pinpoint the difficulties and to brainstorm possible solutions.
If a student continues to show a lack of progress, the teacher implements more intensive instruction. This instruction is known as research-based intervention, because the research findings support the intervention as being effective. The student’s progress is carefully monitored, and the intervention is adjusted or a new intervention is implemented based on the student’s response to the instruction. Although this process helps to reduce inappropriate referrals and build effective interventions within the general education classroom for many students, in Arjun’s case, Mrs. B. and other members of the student-assistance team felt the lack of progress, coupled with his low affect and overall sadness, indicated that a referral should be completed.
The Referral Process
If a student continues to demonstrate lack of progress, even after these interventions, the general education teacher notifies the parent and completes a written referral to the multidisciplinary team. The referral form describes the classroom interventions that have been tried, the results of the interventions, and the learning, social, or behavior problems that persist.
Figure 1.5
illustrates the written referral that Mrs. B. completed on Arjun. Other individuals, such as a parent, the school nurse, or the school psychologist, can also complete a referral. Sometimes a student fills out a self-referral.
Figure 1.5 Written referral
Determining Eligibility
A referral is forwarded to the coordinator of the multidisciplinary team that is responsible for assessing a particular student and determining eligibility for special education services. Depending on the types of concerns and the difficulties that the student is experiencing, the multidisciplinary team members may identify other professionals, such as the school counselor, nurse, speech and language pathologist, occupational therapist, or physical therapist, who should be involved. Before a student’s assessment can begin, a parent or guardian must provide consent for an initial evaluation of their child, and all assessments must be completed within a reasonable time.
Sometimes team members meet first to clarify the questions to be answered during the assessment process and to discuss the types of assessment to complete. In Arjun’s case, the referral focused on academic work and his mental health. The team wondered if his sadness was related to a learning problem or a mental health problem or if his feelings were part of the adjustment of coming to a new country with different educational demands and, probably, the need to converse in a second language.
The team members decided to ask the school counselor and the school psychologist to join the team because of these concerns. Once all the members were assembled, the team discussed which standardized tests and other types of assessment should be conducted to gather additional information. The special education teacher was asked to work with other team members to conduct several classroom observations and gather information using formal and informal assessment instruments. The school counselor conducted a parent interview and the general education teacher provided samples of Arjun’s work. The school psychologist and the special education teacher, in addition to conducting observations, administered standardized norm-referenced tests. A
norm-referenced instrument
is a commercially published test that compares a student’s test performance with that of similar students who have taken the same test.
Once all the assessment information was assembled, the team met to discuss the results. Team members considered the following: Does the student have a disability that adversely affects the student’s educational performance? Team members followed state and federal laws and regulations to answer this question.
As members reported their findings, the team realized that the parent interview helped answer some of their questions about Arjun’s transition to his new school. During the interview, Arjun’s parents talked about his previous school, an all-boys’ school in Sri Lanka, where his classes were delivered in English. The interview revealed that Arjun’s home language is actually English, but he also speaks Sinhal and Tamil, the languages of Sri Lanka. In his previous school, he had difficulty learning, and his teacher had discussed concerns about his moodiness. Other members reported the results of classroom observations and other assessments. In synthesizing the information, the team agreed that Arjun had symptoms of depression. Once the team determined that he was eligible for special education services, team members began the process of planning the IEP.
Program Planning
If the multidisciplinary team determines that a student is eligible for services, the team members convene as an IEP team to develop the student’s individualized education program. This IEP meeting often includes the members of the multidisciplinary team but may also include additional professionals with unique expertise, such as a parent advocate. The IEP team facilitator, usually an administrator, is responsible for coordinating all team meetings at the school or district level.
Planning the IEP
The IEP provides a framework for teaching a student with a disability. Based on assessment information gathered by team members, the IEP includes specific information about the student’s current level of functioning, strengths, and needs. The team uses this information to plan the individualized education program and, later, to determine the extent of the student’s progress and accomplishments.
At the IEP meeting, there is much to talk about. In this section, we look at how team members begin planning the student’s IEP and some of the questions they consider.
Figure 1.6
illustrates these questions and provides reference links to IDEA.
During the IEP team meeting, parents provide information about their child’s strengths and interests as well as areas of concern. The student may participate by sharing reflections on past work, current difficulties, and aspirations for the future. Other members of the team report the results of classroom observations and other assessments, including the student’s current strengths and needs. They also discuss the results of the initial or most recent evaluations and information about the student’s performance on any general statewide or districtwide assessments. This information provides the team with a base to use in establishing the student’s current level of functioning in the areas of concern and determining if the student requires (or continues to need) special education services.
Figure 1.6 The many questions considered by the IEP team
As the team plans the student’s IEP, members address any specially designed instruction that should be used to meet the special needs of the student. Specially designed instruction may include identifying and implementing specific teaching methods, instructional strategies, appropriate accommodations or modifications, instructional materials and equipment, and/or teaching and learning resources. IDEA requires that the descriptions of special education, related services, and supplementary aids and services must be based on peer-reviewed research to the extent possible. The team also discusses the student’s ability to access instructional materials and makes arrangements for the student to have print materials in a digital format, if needed (
Figure 1.7
). A digital social studies textbook, for example, allows the student to listen to the material, gaining content information while also following along with the text.
ACCOMMODATIONS AND MODIFICATIONS.
The IEP team also identifies the appropriate accommodations and modifications needed by the student.
Accommodations
refer to changes to the education program that do not substantially alter the instructional level, the content of the curriculum, or the assessment criteria;
modifications
involve changes or adaptations of the education program that alter the level, content, and/or assessment criteria. If the student will not participate in some or all of the general educations classes, even after considering accommodations and modifications, team members write an explanation of the extent to which the student will not participate. If the student needs accommodations or modifications to participate in state or districtwide assessment of achievement, team members include a statement of these accommodations or modifications.
The National Special Education Elementary Longitudinal Study reported that there are sometimes discrepancies in the accommodations available for state or districtwide assessments and those listed on a student’s IEP or 504 plan. In one study, 76.2% of the students had the accommodation of extended time written in their IEPs or 504 plans, but only 53.3% received extended time on standardized tests (
Bottsford-Miller, Thurlow, Stout, & Quenemoen, 2006
, p. 5).
Figure 1.8
illustrates the accommodations and modifications frequently used in the general education classroom.
Figure 1.7 NIMAS: Access to instructional materials
Figure 1.8 Accommodations frequently used in the general education classroom
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY.
As team members consider the student’s education program, they must also consider the student’s assistive technology (AT) needs and services. For example, Arjun’s team raised questions such as, What do we want Arjun to be able to do within his IEP that he is currently not able to do because of his emotional and learning needs? Would AT enable Arjun to meet this goal(s)? What has been tried to meet his special learning needs in the past? Is it working? Is it providing him with the least restrictive environment?
AT devices include a variety of technology, tools, software, or equipment that can be purchased or specially designed. These materials are used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of an individual with a disability. IDEA also provides for AT services, which include any service that directly assists a child with a disability in the selection, acquisition, or use of an AT device. AT services involve evaluation of the needs of the child, including a functional evaluation of the child; acquiring the device; selecting, designing, fitting, customizing, adapting, applying, maintaining, repairing, or replacing the device; coordinating and using other therapies or services; and training the child, family, and professionals (Sec. 300.6).
AT includes both simple, low-cost materials and high-cost digital equipment. Low-cost devices include a wide-tip marking pen or highlighting tape to indicate key concepts in a textbook. More expensive devices include a handheld device (or personal digital assistant, or PDA), a touch screen, or a smart keyboard with word-processing software. Sometimes software is considered an AT device when it provides the means for a student to access the general education curriculum. For example, a student with a learning disability may use specialized word-processing software with word prediction. Word prediction is a feature of the program that predicts words based on the first letter that the student types. This specialized software helps many students with short-term memory difficulties, word-retrieval problems, and spelling difficulties.
CONSIDERATION OF SPECIAL FACTORS.
Depending on the needs of the student, the IEP team considers special factors:
• Use of Braille for students who have a visual impairment, unless the IEP team determines after an evaluation of the child’s reading and writing skills that instruction in Braille or the use of Braille is not appropriate.
• Use of a sign language interpreter so that a deaf or hard-of-hearing student can participate in the general curriculum.
• Use of strategies such as positive behavioral intervention and supports, for students whose behaviors impede their own learning or the learning of others.
• Communication needs of the student. For students who are deaf or hard of hearing, the team considers the student’s language and communication needs, as well as opportunities for direct communication with peers and professional personnel in the child’s language and communication mode, including direct instruction in the student’s language and communication mode.
• Language needs of the student with limited English proficiency as they relate to the student’s IEP.
POSITIVE BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION, STRATEGIES, AND SUPPORT.
The general education teacher, along with other IEP team members, assists in determining positive behavioral interventions and strategies for the student. For example, the team discusses the student’s need to develop positive interactions with peers through social skill instruction. The regular classroom teacher discusses how this instruction can be transferred to the general education classroom. The school psychologist might be identified as a support person in helping to prevent the student’s recurring problem behaviors, if any exist.
RELATED SERVICES.
After considering specialized instruction, the team discusses the
related services
that are required to assist the student to benefit from special education services. These services are offered by professionals in disciplines other than education. IDEA provides for a variety of related services, such as occupational therapy, rehabilitation counseling, and social work services. These services are identified and written into the student’s IEP.
Table 1.2
lists all the related services mandated by IDEA.
SUMMER MONTHS.
The team also considers whether a student with a disability needs services during the summer months. This right to summer school services is called
extended school year (ESY) services
. These services are not limited to particular categories of disability. When a team considers ESY services, it usually considers a variety of factors, including the likelihood of regression of skills and abilities that occurs when a student does not receive services.
SUPPLEMENTAL AIDS AND SERVICES.
To assist the student in being involved in and making progress in the general education curriculum, the team may identify
supplemental aids and services
. These are provided in the regular education classroom or in another education-related setting to enable children with disabilities to be educated with children without disabilities to the greatest extent possible (Sec. 300.42).
Table 1.2 Related Services Mandated by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
|
Related services include services that are required to assist a student with a disability to benefit from special education services. These services are identified in the student’s IEP and may include one or more of the following: • Audiology • Counseling services • Early identification and assessment of disabilities in children • Interpreting services • Medical services • Occupational therapy • Orientation and mobility services • Parent counseling and training • Physical therapy • Psychological services • Recreation • Rehabilitation counseling • School health services • Social work services in schools • Speech-language pathology • Transportation services |
Source: Adapted From IDEA 34 C.F.R., Sec. 300.34.
TRANSITION SERVICES.
Beginning not later than the first IEP to be in effect when the child turns 16 (or younger, if determined appropriate by the IEP team), each student with a disability must have an IEP that includes a statement of
transition services
(Sec. 300.320). This statement is updated annually and must include (1) appropriate measurable postsecondary goals based on age appropriate transition assessments related to training, education, employment, and, where appropriate, independent living skills; and (2) the transition services (including courses of study) needed to assist the child in reaching those goals. This section of the IEP also includes the transfer of rights at age of majority. In other words, 1 year before the child reaches the legal age of adulthood, according to state law, the IEP must include a statement that the student has been informed of his or her rights.
Individualizing the IEP
According to IDEA, an IEP must include specific information concerning a student’s present level of academic achievement and functional performance. Based on this information, the team develops annual goals, including academic and functional goals, that enable the student to be involved in and make progress in the general education curriculum and that meet the student’s other educational needs. In
Chapters 6
and 7, we examine how special education teachers write IEP goals.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
A Wealth of Classroom Experiences and Expectations
In preparing to teach, educators must consider the wealth of classroom experiences and expectations that children bring. Students come from diverse cultural, ethnic, racial, economic, and linguistic backgrounds. In fact, 20% of the students ages 5 to 17 enrolled in elementary and secondary schools have at least one foreign-born parent, and almost 10 million speak a language other than English at home (
Harper, 2003
). The National Center for Education Statistics (
Hussar & Bailey, 2006
) projects that between 2004 and 2015, enrollment will increase only 6% for students who are of non-Hispanic white ethnicity. Other students will see a more dramatic increase, including a 27% increase for students who are of non-Hispanic black ethnicity; an increases of 42% for students who are Hispanic; 28% for students who are Asian or Pacific Islanders; 30% for students who are American Indian or Alaska Native; and 34% for students who are nonresident foreigners.
Students bring rich experiences and expectations to their schools. Folk tales, dances, music, and family traditions enrich the teaching and learning experience for all students and their teachers. Students can celebrate diversity in the classroom because their teachers promote cultural competence. Cultural and linguistic perspectives involve being responsive to students, their families, and their communities—a theme that you will find in each chapter of this book.
These perspectives play an important role in the process of obtaining special education services. When the IEP team meets, members must be aware of not only the student’s first language but also the student’s home language(s). For example, how will the team gather assessment information about a student who speaks four languages but is just learning English?
In the past, many students with disabilities were inappropriately placed in separate and special classes based on the results of standardized tests given in English. When working with students who are English language learners, teachers must ensure that the assessment approaches used measure the extent of the disability rather than the child’s English language skills. IDEA states that tests and other evaluation procedures must not discriminate on a racial or cultural basis and mandates that assessments must be provided and administered in the child’s native language or another mode of communication unless it is clearly not feasible to do so.
Questions for Reflection
1. Consider the students in the schools in your community. Does your community reflect the diversity of families in your state? In the nation?
2. What materials and other resources does
your state department of education
provide for families of students with disabilities? Other than English, in what other languages are the materials available?
In addition to annual goals, short-term objectives, or benchmarks, are required for students with more significant disabilities who follow alternative achievement standards with alternative state and districtwide assessments aligned to these standards. These objectives describe the standards that the student will work to meet. Each short-term objective includes the following required components:
• Behavior described in terms that can be observed.
• The criteria for successful performance.
• The method for evaluating the behavior.
• The time period for which the objective will be reviewed.
Short-term objectives are not required for students with disabilities whose annual goals are aligned with the general education curriculum or to the state’s learning standards.
The IEP must contain other components, too. For example, when a student will not participate in a regular class, the team must provide an explanation of the extent to which the student will not do so. Also, the IEP must include the projected date for the beginning of the services and anticipated frequency, location, and duration of services.
Progress
So that all team members can refer to the child’s IEP as needed, the team chairperson or another designated staff person arranges for the student’s IEP to be available to each regular education teacher, special education teacher, related service provider, and any other service provider who is responsible for its implementation. Parents, too, receive a copy of their child’s IEP.
Special educators and related service personnel continuously monitor the student’s IEP once services begin. The teacher knows the student’s current level of performance, what the student can do in each academic area, and what other needs the student has, such as the need to improve social skills or decrease problem behaviors. The teacher tracks progress through regular observation, student work samples, demonstrations, and formal and informal tests. Monitoring the IEP on a regular basis allows the teacher to make adjustments in the specially designed instruction when necessary.
Teachers and other professionals working with the student must report progress to parents in report cards, in progress notes, or in other ways at least as often as parents of students without disabilities receive report cards. This progress report enables parents to learn about the progress of their child and the extent to which that progress will enable the child to reach the IEP goals by the end of the program year.
Evaluating Progress
Evaluating Individual Student Progress: Annual Review
At the end of the program year—or more frequently if needed—the IEP team reconvenes to discuss the student’s progress. Has the student met the IEP goals? The special education teacher and other school personnel who have assisted in providing special education and related services described in the student’s IEP report on the student’s progress and on measures of achievement. These measures include various assessments of student performance such as portfolios, observations, curriculum-based assessments, and norm-referenced instruments. The team determines what services the student continues to need, if any. For students who need continuing services, the team plans the program for the coming year.
IN PRACTICE
IDEA requires that the IEP team plan and develop a written description of the specially designed instruction that a student needs. During this process the team considers many questions, one of which is whether or not the student needs AT devices and services. The IEP team is responsible for determining the child’s AT needs on a case-by-case basis as part of special education, related services, or supplementary aids and services. For team members with many other responsibilities, keeping abreast of different AT devices is challenging. Sometimes large school districts employ an AT team consisting of special educators, speech and language pathologists, occupational and physical therapists, computer technicians, and others who assist the IEP team with finding solutions. Sometimes smaller or regional schools employ an AT specialist.
Classroom Focus
Special educator Maria Perez checks the trunk of her car to make sure she has all the AT devices for the students she will visit today. She is an itinerant AT specialist and covers the school districts in her region of the state. When the IEP team determines that a student may need AT, the team coordinator contacts Maria and makes arrangements for her to visit the school. With her combination of training as a special educator and an AT specialist, she is qualified to work with team members to help determine the AT needs of a student with a disability. With access to AT devices through the regional AT center, she brings a variety of devices to the school.
Working Toward Solutions
Working with the student, parents, and other team members, Maria assists in determining the most appropriate device(s) and arranges for the student to borrow the device from the AT center for a trial period. Maria also works with team members to arrange training for the student, family members, and teachers, if needed. She makes plans to return once the trial period is over to help team members assess the effectiveness of the device and to work with the IEP team to locate funding sources to purchase it. When the device is not satisfactory, she suggests an alternative device and continues to work with the student and IEP team members to determine the best technology solution for the student.
Maria works with students and teachers across different grade levels and curriculum areas. Today she is to observe a student with learning disabilities in a middle school science class; and then she will meet with the IEP team to discuss problems that the student is having in using the classroom materials. Later, Maria will visit another school and provide one-to-one training for a student with mental retardation who is learning how to use specialized software for writing assignments.
What The Research Says
The term digital divide refers to technology and the people who use it—and those who don’t.
Technology
is not only an integral part of academic life today but an essential part of social life as well. Students use Web-based social networking, such as MySpace or Face-book, to stay in touch with friends and to keep abreast of important happenings. Instant messaging is another way to stay well connected with peers, friends, and family. In fact, one study found that 96% of U.S. students ages 9–17 who have Internet access use social networking technology to interact with their peers. The most common topic of discussion was education (
eSchool News online, 2007
). Technology is so much a part of our daily lives—can you imagine what life would be like without the ability to access and use technology? According to a national study (
Enders and Bridges, 2006
), more than 70% of people with disabilities are on the other side of the divide, unable to access technology. When technology separates groups of people who cannot access the information, teachers need to examine AT solutions and become advocates for their students.
MyEducationLab: Your Turn
Begin by investigating AT that students need to be successful learners and communicators. Go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Technology Use in the Classroom. Then watch the two videos “Headsprout Reading” and “SmartBoards for Students with Hearing Impairments” and answer the accompanying questions. After viewing the videos, be prepared to discuss your findings. As a teacher, how might you use AT in the classroom? What other technologies might you use to help students in learning and communicating with others? Next, explore examples of student and teacher artifacts: View two of the artifacts listed in the topic Technology Use in the Classroom and answer the accompanying questions. Be prepared to share your ideas with the class.
Evaluating Overall Special Education and Related Services
Along with evaluating individual student progress, program evaluation should address the success of the overall special education program provided by the school. Are students with disabilities making progress in the special education program? Special education programs must be able to demonstrate that students who receive services are making progress and gaining new skills and knowledge. Are parents satisfied with the special education services? Are students with disabilities pleased with the services? As consumers of special education services, students and parents should be given regular opportunities to provide feedback to special education teachers and administrators. Program evaluation can include interviews, checklists, surveys, or formal program-evaluation instruments, and information can be collected from special education teachers, parents, and students themselves. Special education teachers strive to provide high-quality, effective services. To that end, these services must be evaluated on a regular basis and changes made, if indicated.
Because IDEA provides for a continuum of special education services in the least restrictive environment, special education teachers work in many different settings (
Figure 1.9
). Some teachers have their own classrooms; some teachers have no classroom of their own (but consult or coteach in the general education classroom); some teachers spend at least some of the school day traveling among students in different schools or hospital settings. The following sections describe the continuum of environments and various teaching responsibilities of special educators in these settings.
Figure 1.9 Settings where special educators work
Snapshot: Meet Some Special Educators
As you meet the following special educators and learn about their teaching assignments, think about the environment where each educator works and the types of instruction and consultations that they provide. What types of teaching appeal to you? In what settings do you think that you might like to work?
… meet Vicente Pajaro
Vicente Pajaro, a special educator at Suncook School, begins the day with an early-morning meeting with the first-grade classroom teacher. They discuss their concerns about one of the students, Lou Traforti, who has problem behaviors. Over the past month, Lou has begun to interrupt other students during classwork and is generally disrespectful. Vicente listens carefully as the teacher describes her frustration concerning Lou and the reactions of other students. Together, they brainstorm several interventions to manage Lou’s behaviors. Lou has not been referred for special education services yet, and both teachers are hoping that changes in teaching strategies may help to support positive student behaviors. Together they decide that during the next few days, the teacher will work with the students to develop a set of guidelines for classroom and playground behavior. The students and the teacher will be responsible for ensuring that all students in the classroom follow the guidelines.
… meet Joy Lu
Joy Lu stops at her office to look for her social studies folder and project notebook for the fifth-grade class. She hurries down the corridor to the classroom where she will be coteaching and assisting students with disabilities in their civics unit. Today, the classroom teacher will lead the class in a discussion of the reading assignment while Joy provides a graphic organizer of the discussion for Marik, a student with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Joy will monitor Marik’s progress and be ready to offer support and encouragement as needed because Marik frequently becomes distracted and has difficulty completing activities. Later, the students will move into small groups for an activity, and Joy and her coteacher will move among the groups assisting individual students as needed.
… meet John Bates
John Bates scans the schedule posted near the desk. Managing the activities in the high school resource room requires good organizational and coordination skills. He plans instructional activities for each student, meets with his teaching assistant to review the day’s activities, and arranges time to meet with the classroom teachers. Today his morning begins with a group of eight students with learning disabilities who come to the resource room for senior English. In an hour, these students will leave to return to their regular classrooms, and other students will arrive. Throughout the day there may only be 3 to 10 students at a time, but they include students with different needs and strengths. John carefully organizes each student’s assignment and makes sure that each person understands the work. John arranges time to help some students directly while others work on specially designed assignments.
During the day he will work with students in the areas of English, including reading for comprehension and writing, organizational, and study skills. Several of the students have behavior and attention disorders in addition to learning problems, so John needs to consider how to promote positive behaviors as well as academic skills.
By consulting with the general education teacher, special education teachers provide support to students with disabilities in the regular classroom. In the consulting model, the special education teacher meets with the general education classroom teacher on a regular basis to discuss the needs of students, types of supports, accommodations, and modifications. They talk about how a particular teaching strategy is helping (or not helping) and brainstorm about other techniques to use. The consulting teacher has many other responsibilities, including coordinating services and resources and locating special materials or equipment that individual students with disabilities need to participate in classroom activities.
Teachers who coteach divide up the work and share the teaching load, including planning, teaching, modifying instruction, and assessing progress, with their regular education colleagues. Sometimes they work with groups of students, each guiding small-group discussions. At other times, one of the teachers assumes the role of lead teacher while the other teacher moves around the classroom, assisting students both with and without disabilities on an as-needed basis. Their roles may be reversed, depending on the teachers’ preferences and their individual strengths in one or more areas of the curriculum.
Special education teachers may work in a separate classroom, called the resource room or learning center. Some students with disabilities come to the resource room for extra classroom support in one or more curriculum areas. The resource room teacher works closely with the general education classroom teacher to provide tutorial support and teaching geared to students’ needs in reading, mathematics, or other areas of the curriculum.
Other students with disabilities come to the resource room for special instruction. The special instruction may include adapted or special materials and/or specific teaching methods and strategies. For these students, the special educator plans and implements instructional activities in social skills, reading, writing, mathematics, science, or social studies, for example. To monitor student progress and achievement, the special educator uses a variety of assessment approaches. In Chapter 5, we look more closely at how teachers link instructional activities with assessment and discuss the various ways teachers assess student progress.
Special education teachers who work in special education classrooms in public schools teach children who have difficulty learning in the regular classroom for a majority of the day. Teachers in these settings have the responsibility of planning and implementing specially designed instruction in all areas of the curriculum that the student does not receive in the general education setting. Teachers adapt content and/or delivery of instruction to address the unique needs of the student.
Like special educators who work in resource rooms, teachers who work in special education classrooms use a variety of assessment approaches to monitor student progress, developing skills, and achievement. Assessment activities are ongoing and provide both teacher and student with valuable feedback regarding their work. The teacher uses the assessment information not only to determine how students are progressing but also to modify practice. When a student is not making expected gains, the teacher will consider a number of questions. For example, what additional instructional activities does the student need? Is the teaching method effective? Is the student grouping effective?
Schools sometimes share a special education teacher. For the teacher, this means traveling among different schools, carrying materials back and forth, working with complicated schedules, and perhaps having more than one supervisor. Special education teachers with specific expertise in an area such as visual impairments or individuals who work in rural areas find that schools cannot hire a full-time professional but can pool their resources to offer the special education services that children need.
Special education teachers who are employed by special day or residential treatment programs work with students who all have similar disabilities. For example, the school may be designed for students with moderate disabilities, including significant behavior or learning problems, or students with autism spectrum disorders. Special education teachers are responsible for planning and implementing the specialized instruction and assessing student progress. Teachers who work in special schools typically teach a class where students are of similar age and ability. Special-purpose schools may provide day or residential programs.
Special education teachers who work with students in their homes spend much of their day traveling among students. Like itinerant teachers, home teachers instruct a wide range of temporarily homebound students, in terms of age and ability. For example, a student with Down syndrome who has a heart condition may have an acute medical crisis that involves hospitalization and several weeks of recuperation at home. Teachers who provide home instruction focus on assisting students to maintain their educational progress, so that they can return to their local schools once their condition improves or stabilizes.
Similar to home instructors, special education teachers who provide instruction in hospitals typically work with an individual student for a short period of time. Students with disabilities may be hospitalized for an acute condition or accident and will eventually be discharged. Other students with chronic conditions, such as leukemia, will be in and out of the hospital several times over the course of a year. In both situations, the hospital-based teacher helps students keep up with work that they would otherwise miss.
Although much of our discussion so far has focused on federal legislation and the responsibilities of public schools, more and more students with and without disabilities are attending public charter schools or private schools or are receiving instruction at home through homeschooling programs. Charter schools provide alternatives to local public schools and have increased dramatically in number since the first charter schools appeared in the 1990s. They offer some degree of independence from the rules and regulations that apply to traditional public schools. However, charter schools must follow all federal civil rights laws including IDEA and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act (
Ahearn, 2002
).
As an alternative to public school or a charter school, sometimes parents elect to place their child in a private school or provide homeschooling. In these cases, the local school must still provide special education and related services to that child. School representatives and representatives of the private school or homeschoolers consult to design and develop special education and related services. They discuss how the process will operate throughout the school year so that the child can participate in special education or related serives, including who will provide the services and where they will be provided. They may decide to transport the student to the public school to receive special services. In these cases, the special educator will follow the child’s IEP to provide instruction, monitor, and evaluate progress.
Thus the field of special education provides opportunities to work with a wide range of students. We have seen that, as a special educator, your teaching responsibilities differ, depending on the type of setting or program. In the next chapter, we turn our attention to learning more about the students with whom you may work someday.
Summary
• Preparing to be a special education teacher begins by knowing more about research-based practices that provide evidence for effective practice in the classroom.
• Federal legislation, including IDEA, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, No Child Left Behind, and the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act, ensure that students with disabilities will meet high academic and functional achievement standards and have access to appropriate services at no cost to the parents.
• The special education process involves procedures mandated by IDEA that school personnel and a student’s parents follow to identify a student with a disability and to plan, provide, and evaluate appropriate services.
• Special educators teach in a variety of settings, including consulting or coteaching in the general education classroom, instructing in the resource room or self-contained classroom, traveling between schools as an itinerant teacher, teaching in a day or residential treatment program, tutoring children who are homebound or hospital based, and working with students who are enrolled in charter or private schools or who are homeschooled.
1. Interview a special education teacher. Find out what specially designed instruction is offered to the students with disabilities in the school.
2. Arrange to visit a general education classroom that includes children with and without disabilities. What types of accommodations and modifications to the classroom did you observe? Interview the classroom teacher to learn about additional accommodations and modifications that are being used.
3. Contact your state department of education. Obtain a copy of your state’s special education regulations that describe how your state carries out IDEA. Working with a small group of other students, identify the sections in your state regulations that will be most helpful for you as a teacher.
4. Using an Internet search engine, locate and bookmark the Web sites of the following organizations:
U.S. Department of Education
your state department of education
Compare and contrast the information presented. How might you use some of the information to help you in working with parents? With students with disabilities? With other professionals?
5. Working with a small group of classmates, make a list of all the AT devices with which you are familiar. What devices would you like to know more about?
6. Using the information that you identified in the previous question, consider how you would locate additional information about AT. Find the location of the nearest AT resource center. What services does it provide? Alternatively, conduct an Internet search to locate four or five Web sites that you would recommend. Share your findings with the clas
Chapter 2 Understanding Students with Learning Disabilities, ADHD, and Other Health Impairments
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
Compare and contrast the characteristics of a disability and the effect on learning and behavior, from mild to more significant involvement.
Describe some of the causes of learning disabilities and the characteristics of students who receive special education services under this eligibility category.
Describe some of the causes of ADHD and the characteristics of students who receive special education services under this eligibility category.
Describe some of the causes of other health impairments and the characteristics of students who receive special education services under this eligibility category.
Preparing to teach students with disabilities involves understanding not only about the federal mandates that we read about in Chapter 1 but also students and how the characteristics of a disability affect learning, behavior, and social interactions. Understanding more about a specific disability helps special educators identify students who may be eligible for special education services. This understanding also provides an important foundation for planning specialized instruction and selecting appropriate methods, instructional strategies, and materials. This chapter examines the causes and characteristics of learning disabilities, ADHD, and other health impairments. Chapter 3 provides a closer look at the causes and characteristics of emotional disturbance, mental retardation, and autism spectrum disorders.
· Notebook
Although students in individual classrooms may have different educational or medical diagnoses, they probably have similar needs. Their teachers will be striving to improve their academic knowledge, communication skills, appropriate behaviors, social skills, attention, organization, or self-advocacy. In learning to teach students with disabilities, special educators must not only understand the characteristics of a specific disability but also recognize and address the common needs of all students.
Each of us, whether or not we have a disability, has a unique combination of individual characteristics; indeed, characteristics are what make each of us a special individual. For example, we may prefer to study alone or with others; listen to music while reading; or jot down notes or construct concept maps while planning a lesson.
The term
characteristics
encompasses broad areas that define the individual, including the individual’s knowledge; motivation; academic skills; physical, social, and emotional attributes; and the environments in which the individual lives, works, and plays. Many factors influence a person’s characteristics; for example, having opportunities to learn affects student knowledge; living in poverty affects physical health and well-being; being in an abusive environment frequently affects emotional health and self-esteem. Factors that influence an individual’s characteristics also include the absence or presence of a disability and the type of disability. In the classroom, educators observe a cluster of student characteristics that may indicate that a student has a disability.
For example, a learning disability or an attention deficit can affect a student’s ability to acquire, process, or retain information. A student might misunderstand the unwritten code of what teenagers believe to be acceptable behavior in the hallways or frequently misinterprets what others say. A student who is constantly distracted because of ADHD has difficulty following a class discussion. A student with a health impairment may miss classroom discussions altogether because of repeated absences due to limited strength or a chronic health condition that requires hospitalization.
Because some disabilities affect development and acquisition of certain skills, they are more likely to be exhibited and identified at certain age levels. For example, parents may observe that their toddler is not using words when other children are beginning to talk. When a child enters elementary school, teachers are often the first to observe problems in attention, listening, and learning to read, write, and understand mathematics. Later, teachers may observe difficulties in understanding concepts or synthesizing information. A student entering middle school needs to manage rotating schedules, work with team teachers, and juggle multiple assignments. During these years, observant teachers can identify a student who is experiencing difficulty with organizational skills. In high school, a student is expected to take more personal responsibility, to identify goals to further education or training, and to develop skills for living and working within the community. Transition periods are difficult times for all teenagers; for a student with a disability, transitions may be even more difficult because of problems in learning, conforming to the demands of the school environment, or challenges in overcoming physical or social barriers.
As we study the characteristics of specific disabilities, we will use the disability categories as defined by IDEA. Some states use different terms to describe disability categories, such as mild, moderate, and severe. Many educators feel that using mild, moderate, or severe categories provides a helpful way to describe student needs because each category generally implies the degree of difficulty that a student is experiencing. Simply knowing that students have learning disabilities or mental retardation does not provide that level of information. Also, educators who work with students with disabilities with similar needs often use common teaching methods and strategies across disability areas.
Knowledge of the characteristics of students with disabilities assists special educators in identifying students who may have a disability and who should be referred for special education services. Understanding these characteristics helps special educators address student strengths and limitations, develop and implement instruction, plan accommodations or modifications, and monitor and evaluate IEPs (Figure 2.1). Special educators also use knowledge of characteristics of students with disabilities to help answer questions and deal with concerns about students. However, no two students with the same disability are alike; each student has unique skills, knowledge, abilities, gifts—and needs.
Figure 2.1 Special educators use knowledge of student characteristics to assist in their work with other teachers, with team members, and with students and their families
Continuum of Involvement
To envision how the characteristics of a disability affect the learning and behavior of two students, we could think of disabilities as a continuum. At one end is a student who has a mild disability because the student experiences limited difficulties in academic or behavioral areas. For example, Jose is experiencing difficulty in learning how to read. His IEP targets reading and describes how he will work toward reading achievement. Another student, Lili, has the same educational diagnosis but is at the other end of the continuum. Her learning disability affects her educational functioning to a more significant degree. Lili experiences difficulty in reading, understanding and processing language, organizing and managing time, and managing behavior. Her IEP specifies goals for improving reading and language processing with specialized instruction, a goal for improving organizational skills and time management, and a plan to improve behavior.
Other students with a similar disability may be elsewhere in on the continuum. Developing knowledge of a disability provides a starting point for educators in terms of making connections and having conversations. However, overreliance on labels causes misunderstandings and leads to erroneous conclusions. Special educators know that students with mild to moderate disabilities learn, grow, and achieve when given appropriate learning opportunities, support, and experiences that address their needs and abilities.
Web-Based Professional Resources
Internet resources provide educators with a wealth of information about working with students with disabilities. Educators can join mailing lists, download podcasts, contribute to and view blogs, and bookmark useful Web sites that address specific topics. Disability Listserv Resources provides a gateway to numerous listservs devoted to specific topics. Podfeed is a searchable directory of podcasts. At the American Medical Association Web site, teachers can search for information on specific disabilities and disorders by keyword and browse the latest medical journals. A searchable database, AMA Physician Select, provides information on more than 650,000 physicians in the United States by name or specialty.
Internet-based resources provide educators with a wealth of information for working with students with disabilities.
Another excellent source of information on disabilities is the Web site of the National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities (NICHCY), which provides information on common as well as low-incidence disabilities. At this site teachers also can find links to organizations dealing with disabilities of children and youth.
When teachers are searching for professional articles on various disabilities, a good place to start is the Education Resources Information Center, or ERIC. At this site they can browse through a vast library of short articles on topics for educators across disability areas. This site also includes information on students with disabilities from diverse cultures.
In addition to professional Web sites, teachers can find many resources that are helpful in working with students and their families. Some of our favorite sites are The Beach Center at the University of Kansas and Family Village, a popular site where a family can communicate with others who have common problems and challenges. Visitors can post questions and examine resources. What other professional Web sites would be helpful to new teachers? Share your ideas with your colleagues.
2.2 Students with Learning Disabilities
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2.2 Students with Learning Disabilities
Snapshot: Meet Jared
“I’m a ninth-grade student and I have a learning disability. I remember back a few years ago, I didn’t think that I would ever learn to read. It was pretty hard for me because all my friends didn’t seem to have any trouble and I just couldn’t seem to learn. There were these books about a boy named Harry Potter, who was a wizard. Everybody in my school was walking around with a copy of the latest book, and everybody was talking about it. I walked around with a copy of the book too. I didn’t want to be different, but I couldn’t read it.
“That same year, I worked with a new special education teacher who knew a lot about teaching students with learning disabilities. I really wanted to learn to read, and every day I worked with that teacher. He had some neat books that we read, and he even taped some of Harry Potter for me. I still don’t read as well as a lot of people my age but, hey, I know that I have to continue to work hard if I want to continue my education after high school.”
… and His Father
“Raising Jared has been difficult at times. His teachers would call me to talk about some of the problems he was having—like learning how to read. I remember that when I was in school I also had a difficult time with reading. But I hoped that things would be different for Jared. When the school people tested Jared, they found out that he had a learning disability. Now we knew what was causing his problems. The teachers have worked really hard to help him, and I’m so pleased with his progress now. His interest in school has increased, and he’s starting to think about a career.”
After reading this brief snapshot of Jared, how would you describe his skills or special abilities and his special needs? As you learn more about learning disabilities in the following section, consider possible causes of learning disabilities. How would you compare and contrast characteristics that may be unique to Jared with characteristics that are common to students with learning disabilities.
Students with learning disabilities have average to above-average intellectual abilities but experience difficulty in one or more academic areas. According to the federal definition of learning disabilities that is presented in IDEA,
The term disorder is in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not apply to children who have learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; of mental retardation; of emotional disturbance; or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. (Sec. 300.8)
Early Intervention
When learning disabilities are not identified early, students may become frustrated and lose interest in achievement. IDEA requires that schools provide early intervention to any child who is experiencing difficulty in learning. This intensive instruction must be monitored carefully, and data on the child’s progress must be recorded to determine if the child responds to scientific, research-based intervention. For example, Taylor—a first grader at Central School—was having difficulty learning to read. After being identified by her classroom teacher, she began the first of a multilevel series of intensive instruction. (This intensive instruction, also often referred to as early intervention, should not be confused with the same term, when used to refer to the services received by infants and toddlers with disabilities under IDEA.) Even with this additional intervention, though, Taylor continued to experience great difficulties, so the Central School multidisciplinary team met to discuss these concerns and a possible learning disability.
Team members follow specific procedures for determining that a child has a learning disability. According to IDEA, each state develops specific criteria for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability. The criteria must use a process of data-driven documentation and research-based intervention. The child’s response to each intervention is carefully monitored and progress, or lack of, is documented. This information is sometimes referred to as
response to intervention (RTI)
. The child’s ability to learn and acquire the necessary skills during the intervention is critical information in determining if the child can respond to instruction or if the child really has a disability and needs more intensive, specialized instruction available under special education services. When the IEP team meets, they consider data that demonstrate that the child received appropriate instruction in the regular education classroom and how the child responded to multilevel interventions. As an alternative to this process, IDEA also permits the use of alternative research-based procedures for determining if a child has a learning disability.
As team members review all this information, they determine if other assessments should be completed. The team is not required to recommend a test of intelligence as part of the assessment process, nor is the team required to show a discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement, which was required until IDEA. Once all the information has been gathered and analyzed, the team uses the evidence to determine if the child has a learning disability.
Some states do not use categorical definitions of eligibility at all but focus on the intensity of services that a student requires. States may also use slightly different criteria to determine eligibility categories than those described in IDEA. Although we will examine the descriptions in IDEA, you may wish to examine the criteria that your individual state’s regulations describe to determine whether a student is eligible for special education services.
Causes of Learning Disabilities
Researchers now believe that several factors contribute to learning disabilities. Research findings in neuroscience, the discipline that studies the structure and function of the brain and the central nervous system, continue to expand our knowledge of the medical aspects of learning disabilities, reading disabilities, or
dyslexia
. Because learning disabilities often occur in multiple family members, another line of research has examined genetic factors. A large body of findings presents strong evidence that, for some students, severe reading disabilities are inherited (
Davis et al., 2001
;
DeFries & Alarcon, 1996
; Pennington, 1995). Additional lines of research have examined other possible causes, such as childhood illnesses, loss of oxygen due to accidents, or environmental factors such as pollutants.
Neuroscience and Learning Disabilities
Neuroscience has produced intriguing findings, leading to renewed interest in cognitive science and its implications for teaching and learning. As a result of some of this resarch we now have a greater understanding of the impact of disability on learning. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), a process that allows the brain to be seen through imaging techniques, indicates anatomical and functional differences between the brains of children with learning disabilities and the brains of children who do not have learning problems (
B. A. Shaywitz, Lyon, & S. E. Shaywitz, 2006
;
B. A. Shaywitz, S. E. Shaywitz, & Blachman, 2004
). To provide a closer look at brain activity during cognitive processes, investigators use electrophysiological and metabolic imaging techniques. These brain maps have identified a number of brain irregularities and inconsistencies in individuals with learning disabilities (
Hynd, Semrud-Clikeman, & Lyytinen, 1991
; Sousa, 2006a, 2006b).
The left hemisphere of the brain contains most of the areas responsible for speech and language processing. B. A. Shaywitz et al. (2006), researchers at the Yale University School of Medicine, have studied the process of reading and the associated areas in the brain. Some of their investigations have focused on how the brain functions when children both with and without disabilities are learning to read. Their findings indicated that there are three specific neural systems on the left hemisphere of the brain for reading. These include an area in the region of Broca’s area, a language area that is believed to serve articulation and word analysis. One posterior area is believed to serve word analysis and the second area, to serve rapid, automatic, and fluent identification of words.
Using functional MRI, these researchers found that there were major differences in activation in the three neural systems between children with dyslexia and children without dyslexia. Their results show that younger children with dyslexia show significantly less activation in the three neural systems than do children without disabilities.
More importantly the work of B. A. Shaywitz et al. (2006) indicates that the neural systems are receptive and can be modified by effective reading intervention. As reading skill increases, brain activation increases. Large-scale studies on young children indicate that using interventions that focus on phonemic awareness and phonics can remediate and may prevent reading difficulties in early elementary children (
S. E. Shaywitz, 2003
;
Torgesen et al., 1999
).
Less is known about older children with dyslexia and the ability to compensate. B. A. Shaywitz and S. E. Saywitz (2007) found that older children with dyslexia appear to compensate with increased activation in another part of the brain, the anterior regions (p. 74). Teachers working with older children and youth with dyslexia can help students compensate by using research-based practices, including the use of semantic or word knowledge, use of context, and increasing verbal ability. Although younger children use phonological skills in learning how to read, old students rely more on semantic knowledge, or word meaning, and their own vocabulary (B. A. Shaywitz et al., 2006).
In sum, these findings in brain science have very important educational implications:
• Intervention works! Intensive evidence-based reading instruction with young children improves reading fluency and the development of neural systems that are the foundation for skilled reading.
• To read, a child has to develop knowledge of the sounds that letters and letter combinations make. Instruction must involve phonemic awareness and phonics.
• To be good readers, children must have a good vocabulary and word knowledge. Instruction must include teaching vocabulary words and their meaning(s). (Shaywitz, Lyon, & Shaywitz, 2006)
Characteristics of Students with Learning disabilities
Early Signs of Learning Disabilities in Young Children
Let us examine some of the early signs of learning disabilities that a teacher might observe in a preschooler. One of the first areas is the child’s speech and use of language. The child’s speech may be garbled and difficult to understand. The child may display problems in using and understanding language and may have difficulty with word retrieval. For example, the child may know that a glass holds milk but may be unable to come up with the word glass when the teacher asks the children to name various objects in a picture. The child may have difficulty in discriminating letters and numbers, confusing the names of letters or numerals.
Some preschool children show difficulties in attention, such as hyperactivity, inattention, or impulsivity. A teacher may observe that the child has difficulty sitting still during circle time or is easily distracted during the reading of a story. Later the child may begin an activity at one center and then go to a second center before completing the first activity.
Preschool children who later are identified as having learning disabilities acquire fine motor skills after other children typically have mastered them. For example, a child may experience difficulty in learning how to dress and use buttons and zippers. Although these skills take time for all children to learn, the child with a learning disability continues to find these tasks frustrating and easily gives up trying. Other fine motor activities such as drawing shapes or writing letters with a pencil, using scissors to cut paper, and completing a puzzle may be difficult and frustrating for the child.
During outside play, a child may display awkwardness in gross motor activities, such as difficulty throwing or catching a large ball. Jumping and hopping, which require a certain degree of coordination, may present problems for a child.
Although educational diagnosticians and other professionals can identify many disabilities in very young children, these professionals usually do not identify children with learning disabilities during the preschool years. There are many reasons for the lack of early identification of a learning disability. Many of the early signs of learning disabilities are also associated with overall developmental delays or lack of opportunity. Thus, educators may have difficulty determining whether a young child’s problems are the result of an actual disability, lack of appropriate early education experiences, or poor environmental conditions. However, these early signs can alert the astute teacher that a child needs intensive early intervention.
Characteristics of School-Age Students with Learning Disabilities
Similar to students without disabilities, school-age students with learning disabilities do not fit a single profile. Some students have difficulty with short-term memory tasks, others have accompanying attention problems, and still others have difficulties in activities involving motor skills. The one common denominator, though, is an academic achievement problem in literacy, including reading and writing, language use, or mathematics.
Because students with learning disabilities exhibit a broad range of academic achievement problems, special education teachers must identify and plan appropriate educational programs for a diverse group of students. Students typically show uneven patterns of academic performance. Some students have problems in just one area of achievement, whereas others have difficulty in several areas. Within an academic area, students may have some knowledge, but other relevant knowledge, typical of most students at that grade level, is missing.
The achievement of students with learning disabilities may not be accurately reflected in standardized test scores. In fact, students with learning disabilities often receive low scores on standardized tests. As with students without disabilities, skills, knowledge, and achievement can be represented in a variety of other ways, such as performance-based assessment and portfolios, assessment approaches that we discuss in Chapter 5.
READING.
One of the most difficult areas for many students with learning disabilities is learning how to read and to comprehend what has been read. In fact, about 80% of students with learning disabilities have a disability in reading (
President’s Commission on Excellence in Special Education, 2002
). Teachers can identify early signs of learning disabilities by observing problems in phonological awareness in the early grades.
Phonological awareness
involves understanding and identifying the individual sounds that make up a word. For example, a kindergarten teacher might ask the children, “Who can tell me the sound you hear at the beginning of the word bat?” Children who have not developed phonological awareness cannot identify the separate sounds, or
phonemes
, of words (
Torgesen, 1998
). Long after other students in the class have learned sound-symbol relationships, students who have learning disabilities may continue to have difficulty remembering the sounds that go with individual letters and how to blend sounds to make whole words.
Older students who have mastered decoding, the reading of printed text, may not develop fluency in reading. When asked to read text at their grade level, students may show two obvious difficulties (Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007). First, they may not be able to read many of the words in the text. They may guess or attempt to sound out these words. Second, they may make numerous mistakes because of difficulty in using letter-sound relationships to identify unknown words. Students may not realize their mistakes, adding to the confusion. In addition, students may have difficulty recognizing words quickly or reading longer passages in a manner that permits understanding the material and making connections. In other words, students can read the words but have difficulty answering questions, identifying key concepts, or summarizing and interpreting the main points of the text.
MATHEMATICS.
Some students with learning disabilities may demonstrate difficulty in computing mathematics, understanding word problems, or using problem-solving strategies. Students may confuse place value in computation or make consistent errors in combining sets. Word problems create difficulties not only in reading and understanding the problem but also in knowing how to proceed with problem solving. Students must be able to (a) recognize what the problem is asking, (b) decide on the appropriate strategy, (c) remember all the steps in carrying out the strategy, and (d) complete the operation correctly. Students with learning disabilities may have difficulties with each step along the way.
WRITTEN LANGUAGE.
The content of written language and the mechanics of writing, including spelling, grammar, and punctuation, may be affected by a learning disability. Many children with learning disabilities labor over writing tasks, barely having a few words down when other students are finishing their first drafts. Their handwriting is often illegible. Their fine motor difficulties could have been observed during the early years, perhaps when they tried to use markers and crayons or were learning how to print.
Spelling may present special challenges, especially for students who cannot recognize sound-symbol relationships. They may have few sight words, or words that they can read without sounding out and can spell quickly. Other students may produce written text that lacks organization. They may use incorrect grammatical structures and incorrect word meanings but have wonderful, creative ideas.
ORAL LANGUAGE.
Oral language can be thought of as encompassing three areas. First,
expressive language
is the language used to communicate with others. Second,
receptive language
refers to understanding the language of others. Finally,
inner language
involves the use of language during thinking, planning, organizing, or other thought processes. Students with learning disabilities frequently exhibit impairments in one or more of these areas.
Oral language may be difficult for some students to interpret. Students with auditory processing difficulties can hear what the teacher says but have difficulty understanding. For example, a teacher provides an overview of what the students will be doing during social studies class: “Today we are going to continue our exploration of what it was like to live in the 1700s. Some of you may choose to work in a group that focuses on city life; others may select a group that focuses on living in a rural farming community.” A student with an auditory processing problem may miss all or parts of the introduction and may not realize that the task is to work in a group with other students.
An educator designs instructions so that a student with a learning disability experiences success.
In the classroom, teachers observe
• difficulty in understanding verbal explanations or discussions;
• misinterpretation of a fast-paced group conversation; and
• difficulty in maintaining concentration in an environment that is over-stimulating.
Understanding and using spoken language, often referred to as pragmatics, provides individuals with the skills to engage in the give and take of everyday conversation.
Pragmatics
includes three areas: (a) using language to achieve communicative goals, (b) using information from contextual clues (such as bringing the topic to a close when the listener uses body language to show lack of interest), and (c) knowing how to use conversational skills (Lahey, 1988). Learning to be a careful listener and to check for understanding prevents miscommunication. Knowing when to add a comment to encourage further conversation, when to change the subject, or when to stop talking are skills necessary for building and maintaining friendships and being successful in many types of jobs. Students with learning disabilities may not keep the conversation going or may make irrelevant comments. Their IEPs will include goals to increase skills in understanding and using conversational language.
CONTENT AREAS.
Students with learning disabilities frequently have difficulty with tasks and assignments in the content areas. For example, a middle school science book uses the following new vocabulary words in a chapter on astronomy: axis, revolution, galaxies, asteroids, pulsars, and satellites. Although the teacher introduces the new words to all students, a student with a learning disability may not be able to remember them when he or she sees them again. In addition, a student may lack the reading skills that other students have developed to figure out the new word. Students may be asked to draw on other skills, too. In this science unit, they are asked to compare and contrast distances and the time required to travel those distances on Earth. Students will need to draw on mathematical understandings and mathematical skills to complete unit assignments.
When teachers use original source materials in the content areas to heighten student interest and motivation, students with learning disabilities may have difficulties. For example, a social studies teacher wants to help students deepen their understanding of the American Civil War. The teacher locates a number of rich Web resources, including a diary written by an individual who lived during the mid-1800s, maps, photographs, and other original documents. Although the information is fascinating, the reading is difficult because none of the text is controlled for vocabulary and contains a number of new words and unfamiliar concepts.
Students with learning disabilities may have difficulty completing assignments. Because a learning disability can affect a student’s abilities in written language, an assignment that requires a student to produce a written or oral report presents challenges beyond planning and gathering information for the report. A student may experience difficulties in organizing and synthesizing information. The learning disability may affect language and memory skills, such as word retrieval and thought processes, in writing or in giving the oral report. Special educators design specialized instruction, and other members of the IEP team provide services so that the student can be successful and achieve in the classroom while maintaining high expectations. In later chapters of this book, we discuss how special educators use teaching methods, instructional strategies, and technology to help students become successful learners.
MOTOR SKILLS AND COORDINATION.
Motor skills and coordination of large and small muscles present difficulties to some students. Some students with learning disabilities may appear clumsy and awkward and experience difficulty in coordination that hinders them in playing team sports, whereas others may be active team players. Physical therapists refer to these difficulties as gross motor problems and work with students to improve their skills. Students with small muscle problems or fine motor difficulties often work with occupational therapists. For example, Ti and Gerri both have learning disabilities. Ti, a fifth grader, has gross motor problems—difficulty in catching and throwing a ball on the playground and problems with coordination during physical activities. Gerri, a first grader, experiences difficulty with fine motor skills, such as starting the zipper on her jacket and learning to write letters. Their teachers regularly confer with the therapists to discuss progress and obtain suggestions for transferring therapeutic interventions to the classroom.
MEMORY.
People hold many different types of memories. For example, they can recall melodies of favorite songs or the look on a friend’s face when seeing him or her after a long absence. During various types of learning and recall activities, researchers have been able to view and study the brain through positron emission tomography scans and functional MRIs. After extended work, they believe that they have been able to identify specific brain areas where different types of memories are labeled (Sprenger, 1999).
According to Sousa (2006a), there is evidence that because experiences usually comprise several aspects, the brain stores them in more than one area for later retrieval. “Which sites to select for storage could be determined by the number of associations that the brain makes between the new learning and past learnings. The more connections that are made, the more understanding and meaning the learner can attach to the new learning, and the more likely it is that it will be stored in different networks. This process now gives the learner multiple opportunities to retrieve the new learning” (p. 79).
There are three different stages of memory: immediate, working, and long-term memory (Sousa, 2006a). Whereas immediate memory is temporary, working memory can last for hours and allows one to retain relevant information while completing a task. Students with learning disabilities frequently have difficulty with working memory. For example, Taylor begins to write a short story but, while pausing to look up the spelling of a word, forgets what she had planned to say.
Much more remains to be learned about the role of various areas of the brain, how they work together, and how various types of experiences are stored and later retrieved. Students with learning disabilities frequently have difficulty learning and retaining certain types of information. As research in neuroscience continues to inform our practice, educators will be able to apply this information to understanding more about learning disabilities and enhancing teaching and learning opportunities in the classroom.
ORGANIZATIONAL SKILLS.
Keeping track of classes, assignments, extracurricular activities, part-time work schedules, and obligations at home and in the community requires good organizational skills. Students who have difficulty with organization frequently
• misplace assignments;
• cannot locate materials such as a textbook, pencil, or flash drive;
• do not allow enough time to complete an assignment; and
• do not know when assignments are due.
Teachers can help students develop organizational strategies by showing them, for example, how to prioritize their work or keep a schedule planner. In Chapter 16 we examine additional ways teachers help students develop good organizational skills.
BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS.
Students with learning disabilities frequently have compounding behavioral problems. These problems may be the result of experiencing frustrating academic work; difficulty in understanding and interpreting information; misplacing materials, assignments, and books; or misinterpreting social situations and conversations. For example, teachers observe students
• acting out;
• being physically and/or verbally aggressive toward others;
• being disrespectful; or
• lacking motivation.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
English Language Learners and Learning Disabilities
Sometimes educators wonder if the classroom difficulties an English language learner is experiencing are related to learning a new language or to a disability. Which characteristics alert educators to consider the possibility of a disability when a student is learning English as a second language? Let us take a closer look at some useful suggestions.
According to Roseberry-McKibbin (1995), an educator may observe that the student uses nonverbal aspects of language that are culturally inappropriate or does not express basic needs adequately. The student may rarely initiate verbal interaction with peers or may respond sporadically or inappropriately when peers initiate interaction. Sometimes the student replaces speech with gestures, communicating nonverbally when talking would be appropriate and expected.
The student may experience difficulty in conveying thoughts in an organized, sequential manner that is understandable to listeners. For example, the student may skip from one topic to the next or have word-finding difficulties that go beyond typical second-language-acquisition patterns. The student may fail to provide significant information, leaving the listener confused, or may have difficulty with conversational turn-taking skills. The student may perseverate on a topic even after the topic has changed, may fail to ask and answer questions appropriately, or may need to hear things repeated even when they are stated simply (Roseberry-McKibbin, 1995).
Barrera (2006) wondered if there were specific features of student work that could help educators determine if a student who was learning English as a second language also had learning problems. This researcher worked with 38 general and special educators who examined 114 student work samples. The work samples were completed by high school students from three different groups: (a) second-language learners identified as having learning disabilities, (b) second-language learners who were not in special education, and (c) students who were considered typically achieving to high achieving bilingual or English proficient students.
The work samples consisted of journals kept by the students as they learned content-area vocabulary. Students were taught to write notes as they learned new vocabulary terms and to write their own vocabulary definitions. They also were asked to write two sentences for each new term.
The research findings indicated that the teachers correctly rated the student work samples according to the previously hypothesized patterns, with English-proficient-bilingual students rated highest; next were students who were second-language learners, and third were second-language learners identified as having learning disabilities. However, many direct comparisons between these groups were not clear. For example, the researchers found that students who also were identified as having learning disabilities not only wrote down fewer keywords but were provided with fewer words during instructional time. Thus, “…one factor in limited growth in language and vocabulary development is either the limited exposure to opportunities for building vocabulary or that slower rate of vocabulary acquisition by individuals with difficulties that span both academic content and language learning” (Barrera, 2006, p. 153). No students should be shortchanged in terms of academic expectations.
In meeting the needs of students, many of whom may be newcomers to this country, educators learn to observe individual student characteristics. When the teacher has concerns, the parents should be invited and encouraged to come to school so that the concerns can be discussed. Finally, when concerns persist, the student should be referred to the multidisciplinary team to determine whether the student has a disability. If so, the student should receive appropriate specialized instruction through special education services.
Questions for Reflection
1. What additional information is helpful for educators to know about students who are English language learners?
2. Can you identify several Web-based resources concerning characteristics of various disabilities that are available in languages other than English?
ATTENTION AND HYPERACTIVITY.
Teachers often refer to students with learning disabilities as having a short attention span or being overactive. These characteristics actually comprise another disability, ADHD, which is sometimes associated with a learning disability. A student who has characteristics only of inattentiveness or hyperactivity does not necessarily have a learning disability. Later in this chapter, we look more closely at ADHD.
Keeping Current: Learning Disabilities
Professional Web sites help educators, other professionals, parents, and students find out more about learning disabilities. A good place to begin is with the Division for Learning Disabilities, one of the divisions of the professional organization for special educators, the Council for Exceptional Children. The Division for Learning Disabilities Web site focuses on information and resources for teaching students with learning disabilities. Along with obtaining resources for understanding learning disabilities and teaching tips, educators can join discussion groups with colleagues and experts.
Another good resource, the International Dyslexia Association, maintains a Web site that includes a wealth of information for educators and individuals with learning disabilities, including sections for children, college students, adults, and parents. This site provides an option to customize the display of information by changing the font type and font size. Incidentally, the International Dyslexia Association is one of the oldest and best-known organizations in the field of learning disabilities in this country.
There are a number of other national organizations, such as the Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA), which maintains affiliates in each state. On the LDA Web site, users can link to the Web site of every state affiliate to discover regional activities, information, and resources. The National Center for Learning Disabilities provides a variety of helpful information, and visitors can download free software if they choose to listen to the information rather than reading it.
IN PRACTICE
IDEA requires specific procedures for identifying students with learning disabilities. Long before a teacher makes a referral to the IEP team, there must be documented efforts that the student has received scientific, research-based instruction. When a child does not make progress in the regular classroom, the school provides a program of more intensive instruction that has a research base with evidence that it is effective. This intensive instruction is generally implemented in small groups of students or individual tutorials with a trained professional such as a reading teacher. Educators keep data on student progress at each of these progressively, more intense levels of instruction. When a child does not respond to intensive interventions, the child is referred to the IEP team. All the information concerning the interventions tried and the student data regarding lack of progress will be presented to the IEP team.
Classroom Focus
In preparation for the IEP team meeting, special educator Mitzi Chan reviewed Taylor Jackson’s student file. Taylor, a third-grade student, was continuing to experience difficulty in learning how to read. Mitzi first checked her attendance record and found that Taylor had been absent frequently over the past year. Next she looked to see if there were records of vision and hearing tests. Mitzi also talked with the reading specialist who had been providing small-group instruction. She listened carefully as the reading specialist described her observations of Taylor’s work. “It’s been so difficult to keep her attention. She interrupts when the other children are reading and has difficulty even sitting still. When Taylor reads, she still has difficulty with initial blends such as ‘sh’ and ‘ch.’”
Working Toward Solutions
The IEP team meeting was scheduled, and Ms. Jackson (Taylor’s mother), teachers, the school principal, the school nurse, and the school psychological examiner attended. The school principal facilitated the meeting, welcoming each person. She asked the general education teacher to talk about Taylor’s work in the classroom. The reading specialist spoke next to discuss the different types of instruction she had provided. Next, Ms. Jackson talked about how she felt her daughter was progressing, “Frankly, I’ve been concerned. I know that she is falling behind, and I’d like her to get more help. When her older brothers were in school, they had some very difficult times. We don’t want Taylor to experience the same problems.”
The school nurse brought up the number of absences that were noted in her school file and Ms. Jackson explained, “I took on a second job in September and her grandmother helps me during the week. When Taylor misses the bus, her grandmother does not have a way to get her to school.”
Mitzi asked if Taylor had received a recent vision and hearing test. Ms. Jackson could not remember if she had, and there was no record in her file. The school nurse volunteered to schedule these screenings.
Determining if Taylor has a learning disability is a carefully documented process. The team listened carefully to the classroom teacher and the reading specialist’s descriptions of the various interventions tried and the data that they had collected on Taylor’s continuing difficulties. The information that the parent shared helped explain her absences. What effect did irregular attendance have on the carefully planned interventions? Why did the special educator ask about Taylor’s vision and hearing? How might these screenings impact on Taylor’s learning and, later, the team’s decision?
At this team meeting, team members shared a lot of information. However, before an educational diagnosis can be made, the team will need to review additional information that was requested at the meeting, synthesize all the information, and analyze the data. Determining a learning disability and eligibility for special education services is a carefully documented process.
What the Research Says
One research team (Al Otaiba & Fuchs, 2006) was interested in identifying student characteristics that would predict if children would respond or not respond to early literacy interventions. They hoped that if they could identify specific characteristics on a reliable basis they might be able to help those children who do not respond. The study involved studying 312 kindergarten and first-grade children. Children were divided into four groups, which included (a) 2 years of intervention, (b) only 1 year of intervention in kindergarten, (c) only 1 year of intervention in first grade, and (d) typical classroom instruction in both years (control group).
Classroom teachers were trained to deliver the intervention within the regular classroom as part of reading instruction. This instruction was explicit and systematic. In other words, the instruction was teacher-directed and specific to developing skills. Teachers taught phonological awareness activities in 5- to 15-minute sessions three times per week for 20 weeks. They also used phonological awareness and phonemic decoding practice three times per week for 16 weeks. These interventions came from Ladders to Literacy (
O’Connor, Notari-Syverson, & Vadaoy, 2005
) and Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies PALS-K for kindergarden, and first- to third-grade PALS (Invernizzo, Juel, Swank, & Meir, 2003–2007; Invernizzo, Meir, & Juel, 2003–2007). In addition, the teachers used the typical classroom reading instruction. This instruction also consisted of phonological awareness and phonics but, in contrast to the intervention, was implicit or embedded in reading activities.
The findings highly supported the children who participated in the intervention groups, even for 1 year. Of the 227 students who were in one of the intervention groups (kindergarten only, first grade only, or both kindergarten and first grade) only 7.05% of the children did not respond by the end of the intervention period. A much higher percent (25.35%) of the 71 students in the control group did not respond.
The researchers concluded that PALS-K, PALS1–3, and Ladder to Literacy are not only effective beginning reading programs but can be implemented in the regular classroom. Additionally, the researchers reiterated an early warning by Vellutino et al. (1996). They cautioned that many young children with apparent reading disabilities are children who really only need competent instruction.
The researchers also examined the characteristics of children who did not respond to the intensive intervention program. These children scored lower on vocabulary and rapid naming, such as naming letter sounds. Furthermore, they demonstrated more problem behaviors. In fact, problem behaviors greatly interfered with instruction and children’s progress. Moreover, inattention and conduct problems were observed, even during one-to-one tutorials. “The distractibility or conduct problems of some (children) are so severe that much of the tutoring time is lost to behavior management” (p. 427). The authors concluded that these children, who may be identified as having learning disabilities, need carefully designed specialized instruction as part of their special education services. They suggested that their reading instruction may need to be combined with behavior-modification or self-regulation activities.
MyEducationlab: Your Turn
Begin by learning more about students with learning disabilities. What characteristics of learning disabilities might you observe in students within the classroom? What are some effective classroom practices? Go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Learning Disabilities. Then select at least two different videos to view, and answer the accompanying questions. As a future teacher, how might you use research findings on brain-based research? To learn more about this topic, read the article entitled “Reading Disability and the Brain” in the topic Learning Disabilities and answer the accompanying questions. Be prepared to share your ideas with classmates.
LDOnline is an extensive Web site with excellent discussions of the IEP, IEP team meetings, instructional strategies, articles, and research related to learning disabilities. A favorite section for children with learning disabilities is the Especially for…Kids. Which sites do you think would be most helpful to first-year teachers? What additional professional resources on learning disabilities can you find?
2.4 Students with Other Health Impairments
Snapshot: Meet Amanda
“My name is Amanda, and I am in kindergarten. Sometimes I have trouble breathing. When it gets bad, my daddy says I am having an asthma attack. This is very scary and I don’t like it. One time my daddy had to take me to the hospital. I don’t remember that, but he does. He says he was very scared too. When I have an asthma attack, I have to use my inhaler and then I feel better.”
… and Her Mother
“Our daughter, Amanda, has asthma. She experiences shortness of breath and has trouble breathing, like she can’t get all the air out of her lungs. The doctor says that her triggers are colds, allergies, certain weeds, perfumes and hairspray, and smoke. Once we were walking through the perfume section of a department store, and she had such a bad reaction that she almost stopped breathing. I got her out of that store fast. Now we always walk on the other side of the mall to avoid passing by that store. Recently, we learned that there are several early warning signs; one of them is a feeling of tightness in the chest.
“I think that it is important to know what an attack can feel like and what are some of the best things one can do for someone during an attack. During her attacks, Amanda can’t catch her breath. It is the sort of feeling that you get when you have run too much and are out of breath. We find that during an attack, the best thing someone can do for her is stay calm, get her a glass of water for her coughing, and talk to her. The person should make sure that she uses her inhaler. The inhaler dispenses medication in a mist that she breathes in, relieving some of the airway obstruction. Having an attack is scary because the person has no control of the situation. After an asthma attack, she often has an increased appetite and experiences a rapid heartbeat. She may shake for hours and get very ‘hyper,’ followed by extreme fatigue” (adapted from A. Cooke, personal communication, 2000).
After reading this brief snapshot of Amanda, what strengths and needs can you identify? In the following section, you will read about asthma as will as other health impairments. What causes asthma? What characteristics are typical of students with other health impairments and how do those compare with what you know about Amanda? If you were Amanda’s teacher, what additional information would you want to have?
Sometimes students have disabilities that are considered under a broad category called other health impairments (Table 2.1). These impairments are often associated with a medical condition that may be either acute (short-lived) or chronic (long-lasting). Students with chronic health impairments, such as hemophilia or cancer, may be too sick for periods of time to participate in an education program. These impairments impact not only on the student’s health, physical strength, and stamina but also on the student’s attitude and emotional well-being.
IDEA identifies a sample of medical conditions that fall under this term:
Other health impairment means having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the education environment that (1) is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and Tourette syndrome; and (2) adversely affects a child’s educational performance. (Sec. 300.8)
Causes of Other Health Impairments
Other health impairments include a wide variety of conditions that may be traced to prenatal causes (conditions during pregnancy); perinatal causes (conditions that occur during the baby’s birth); postnatal causes (conditions that occur in the first months of life); or environmental causes during the early years. For some medical conditions, the causes may be unknown. In addition to ADHD, which we discussed previously, two of the most common health impairments in children and youth are asthma and diabetes.
Asthma is one of the most common pulmonary disorders among children, with an incidence rate that is rapidly growing. Although the exact cause of asthma is not known, medical professionals believe that a primary triggering event leads to inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes, causing the tubes to narrow. This narrowing of the airway makes it difficult to move air in and out of the lungs, resulting in wheezing and coughing. There may be a genetic factor; the child inherits the tendency for inflammation of the lung airway, which then triggers bronchial muscle hyperreactivity (Shouldice, 2004).
Allergens
, or conditions that cause the inflammation of the airway lining, may be either inhaled or ingested. For example, some people are affected only when they come in contact with certain environmental allergens such as cats and dogs or pollen from grasses, trees, and weeds. Sometimes asthma is exacerbated by cold air or environmental pollutants. For some students, physical exercise in class or participation in a sports activity can be a triggering event. Others may experience a strong reaction to nuts or milk. Teachers use knowledge of a child’s triggers in considering the classroom environment and in planning learning activities. For example, if a child is not able to tolerate tree pollen, a teacher will arrange a class field trip before or after the time when the pollen is most prevalent.
Table 2.1 Examples of Disabilities Considered under Other Health Impairments and Their Characteristics
Disability
Description
Characteristics
Asthma
Inflammation of the bronchial tubes
Coughing and wheezing; decreased ability to run or jump; difficulty completing work or attending to tasks
ADHD
A disorder that affects an individual’s behavior
Inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity
Diabetes, type I
A chronic disorder that results from lack of insulin
Faintness, headache, excessive hunger, nervousness, increased heart rate, cold hands and feet
Diabetes, type II
A chronic disorder that results from obesity and the decrease in the body’s sensitivity to insulin
Leads to a wide variety of long-term complications, including heart disease
Epilepsy
Discharge of abnormal electrical activity to one or more areas of the brain
Twitching of a body part, flushing, vomiting, olfactory hallucinations, a feeling of fear. In generalized seizures, consciousness is lost
Hemophilia
A group of lifelong bleeding disorders
Fatigue, severe bleeding episodes
Lead poisoning
Caused by repeated inhalation, ingestion, or absorption through the skin of lead or lead compounds
Anemia, distractibility, hyperactivity, hyperirritability, impulsiveness, lethargy, listlessness
Leukemia
A malignant disease of the blood-making (hematopoietic) system of the body
Anemia, susceptibility to infection, bruising of the skin, often without any noticeable cause, increased incidence of nosebleeds
Nephritis
Inflammation of the kidney associated with infection
Decreased ability of the kidneys to remove waste efficiently
Rheumatic fever
Inflammatory disease that develops after an infection and can involve the heart, brain, joints, or skin
Fever, joint pain or swelling, skin rash, or cardiac problems such as shortness of breath or chest pain
Sickle cell anemia
Abnormal shape of red blood cells, which decreases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood
Anemia and decreased ability to participate in physical activity during a sickle cell crisis; periods of intense pain
Tourette Syndrome
A neurological disorder characterized by repetitive, stereotyped, involuntary movements and vocalizations called tics.
Tics vary in type, frequency, location, and severity. The average age of onset is between 7 and 10 years with worst symptoms in the early teens and improvement occurring in the late teens and continuing into adulthood.
Diabetes is another common disorder among children and youth. There are two types of diabetes: type I and type II. Type I is insulin-dependent diabetes, one of the most common metabolic disorders of childhood. In this condition the student lacks insulin production, which leads to disturbances in carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism. Researchers are not sure what specifically causes type I diabetes, but there appears to be a genetic susceptibility.
Up to a few years ago, individuals who developed type II diabetes were usually more than 30 years of age and often were overweight. Today a national epidemic of type II diabetes is following the epidemic of obesity in children and youth (Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, 1996; Williamson, 2000). Not only has obesity affected what children can physically accomplish, it has drastically affected their health. Being overweight decreases the body’s sensitivity to insulin. This decrease in insulin sensitivity is a primary factor in the development of type II diabetes. In one study, researchers from the fields of nursing, medicine, and public health found that 7% of a sample of 700 school-age children had already developed three of the leading risk factors for heart disease and type II diabetes, including a high insulin level, high blood pressure, and either elevated levels of fats or not enough of the “good cholesterol” (Williamson).
Children may also be affected by other chronic health conditions. For example, children living in poverty may be exposed to lead by ingesting small pieces of old, peeling paint. Even the dust from lead paint that has become embedded in carpets continues to expose children to the dangers of lead poisoning each time the rug is vacuumed.
When young children suffer traumatic insults to the brain, there may be chronic and long-lasting health impairments. For example, a child might experience a sudden blow to the head as the result of a car accident. Or an angry adult might shake a child, even for a few seconds, causing the brain to bounce back and forth within the skull. These actions can result in bruising, swelling, and bleeding of the brain, resulting in permanent brain damage.
Characteristics of Students with Other Health Impairments
Students with other health impairments generally have medical conditions that require ongoing monitoring and attention (Table. 2.1). Some students need to be hospitalized at times, whereas others simply have reduced stamina that prevents them from following the busy routine of a typical school day. The characteristics of the individual impairment can interfere with the lowered or elevated level of alertness, such as those of students with ADHD.
Early Signs of Other Health Impairments in Young Children
Irregular school attendance is one of the indicators that children are not functioning well. In class, children with other health impairments do not always perform at a level equal to that of their peers. When children and their families first learn about an unexpected, long-lasting, medical condition, they may have many questions, fears, and feelings of anger that they have to deal with. During this time, the child’s doctors may need to experiment with various types of medications and dosages before finding the one that meets the child’s needs.
Sometimes physicians ask parents and teachers to make careful observations of the child’s behavior. Noting periods in the day when the child is very active or very passive may be helpful to physicians as they make decisions about treatment options. More often than not, the treatment decisions include identifying an effective medication and regulating the dosage. Educators work closely with school nurses when medications must be stored and administered at school.
ASTHMA.
When a young child has asthma, the triggers, or conditions that cause it, may not be known. Finding out just what triggers the inflammation is often a process that occurs as medical professionals work with the family. To compound the difficulties, some children may have a specific trigger, whereas for others, a combination of triggers brings on the condition. Parents are valuable resources, informing the school about what factors may bring on an asthma attack in their child.
OBESITY AND DIABETES.
Today the United States as well as many countries across the world are experiencing a serious epidemic of childhood obesity. Over the past decade, childhood obesity for children ages 2–5 has more than doubled (Committee on Progress in Preventing Childhood Obesity, 2007). Obesity in young children may lead to type II diabetes during the school years.
Characteristics of School-Age Students with Other Health Impairments
By the time students reach the upper elementary grades, they may need the emotional support of those around them who understand their fears and anxieties and, in some cases, their anger. Teachers, naturally, are anxious as well, especially if the condition is complex and unfamiliar. With adequate assistance from health care professionals, educators can plan appropriate educational programs that allow children and youth to be with their friends and to continue their education.
ASTHMA.
Working with the family, educators can learn the results of medical tests that have identified the child’s triggers and plan accordingly. For example, if an educator knows that the student has inhaled-induced asthma to certain cleaning agents, the school will need to eliminate this trigger. If the student has exercise-induced asthma, the teacher will need to provide a choice of mild to moderate activities.
If the child has mild asthma, a physician usually prescribes medication to prevent airway-lining inflammation. This medication is typically given through an inhaler. For children with moderately severe asthma, the physician may recommend an anti-inflammatory medication that the child takes on a regular basis to control lining inflammation. In addition, the child may need to supplement this regimen with an inhaler. The severity of the asthma at any one time will affect the child’s stamina and ability to participate in the regular classroom routine and outside activities such as recess or special field trips.
DIABETES.
Type II diabetes requires a lifelong commitment of blood sugar monitoring, healthy eating, regular exercise, and, sometimes, diabetes medications or insulin therapy. Students need to keep their blood sugar level as close to normal as possible to delay or prevent complications. By understanding more about type II diabetes, educators can be aware of possible complications:
• Blood sugar is typcially highest 1 to 2 hours after a meal.
• Physical activity lowers blood sugar levels.
• During a cold or illness, the body produces hormones that raise blood sugar level.
• The body also produces hormones in response to prolonged stress that may prevent insulin from working proplerly. (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2003)
OTHER HEALTH IMPAIRMENTS.
Because students with chronic health impairments often require hospitalizations or periods where they may need to receive home-based instruction, teachers can use technology to assist learning. Safraz was diagnosed with leukemia a few months ago. Some of the teachers at his school began talking about ways that they might continue to support Safraz in his classes. They decided to make their lectures available via podcast so that Safraz could keep up with the material on his iPod. An unexpected result was that the teachers found that the podcasts quickly became popular with all the students, who used them to review the material.
Keeping Current: Other Health Impairments
Sometimes educators need more information about the medical condition of a student. MedlinePlus is an online medical encyclopedia that provides extensive resources on disorders and disabilities. Written in everyday language, it presents information on various disorders, their causes, symptoms, treatment, and prognosis.
For beginning educators, the Council for Exceptional Children, Division for Physical and Health Disabilities provides a good Web site for learning more about educational services for students with other health impairments who receive services in schools, in hospitals, or at home. More information about particular medical conditions can be found at specific Web sites. For example, the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America provides a wealth of information about asthma, including facts and frequently asked questions. The American Diabetes Association Web site contains information about both type I and type II diabetes and about ways to encourage good heath.
2.4 Students with Other Health Impairments
Snapshot: Meet Amanda
“My name is Amanda, and I am in kindergarten. Sometimes I have trouble breathing. When it gets bad, my daddy says I am having an asthma attack. This is very scary and I don’t like it. One time my daddy had to take me to the hospital. I don’t remember that, but he does. He says he was very scared too. When I have an asthma attack, I have to use my inhaler and then I feel better.”
… and Her Mother
“Our daughter, Amanda, has asthma. She experiences shortness of breath and has trouble breathing, like she can’t get all the air out of her lungs. The doctor says that her triggers are colds, allergies, certain weeds, perfumes and hairspray, and smoke. Once we were walking through the perfume section of a department store, and she had such a bad reaction that she almost stopped breathing. I got her out of that store fast. Now we always walk on the other side of the mall to avoid passing by that store. Recently, we learned that there are several early warning signs; one of them is a feeling of tightness in the chest.
“I think that it is important to know what an attack can feel like and what are some of the best things one can do for someone during an attack. During her attacks, Amanda can’t catch her breath. It is the sort of feeling that you get when you have run too much and are out of breath. We find that during an attack, the best thing someone can do for her is stay calm, get her a glass of water for her coughing, and talk to her. The person should make sure that she uses her inhaler. The inhaler dispenses medication in a mist that she breathes in, relieving some of the airway obstruction. Having an attack is scary because the person has no control of the situation. After an asthma attack, she often has an increased appetite and experiences a rapid heartbeat. She may shake for hours and get very ‘hyper,’ followed by extreme fatigue” (adapted from A. Cooke, personal communication, 2000).
After reading this brief snapshot of Amanda, what strengths and needs can you identify? In the following section, you will read about asthma as will as other health impairments. What causes asthma? What characteristics are typical of students with other health impairments and how do those compare with what you know about Amanda? If you were Amanda’s teacher, what additional information would you want to have?
Sometimes students have disabilities that are considered under a broad category called other health impairments (Table 2.1). These impairments are often associated with a medical condition that may be either acute (short-lived) or chronic (long-lasting). Students with chronic health impairments, such as hemophilia or cancer, may be too sick for periods of time to participate in an education program. These impairments impact not only on the student’s health, physical strength, and stamina but also on the student’s attitude and emotional well-being.
IDEA identifies a sample of medical conditions that fall under this term:
Other health impairment means having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the education environment that (1) is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and Tourette syndrome; and (2) adversely affects a child’s educational performance. (Sec. 300.8)
Causes of Other Health Impairments
Other health impairments include a wide variety of conditions that may be traced to prenatal causes (conditions during pregnancy); perinatal causes (conditions that occur during the baby’s birth); postnatal causes (conditions that occur in the first months of life); or environmental causes during the early years. For some medical conditions, the causes may be unknown. In addition to ADHD, which we discussed previously, two of the most common health impairments in children and youth are asthma and diabetes.
Asthma is one of the most common pulmonary disorders among children, with an incidence rate that is rapidly growing. Although the exact cause of asthma is not known, medical professionals believe that a primary triggering event leads to inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes, causing the tubes to narrow. This narrowing of the airway makes it difficult to move air in and out of the lungs, resulting in wheezing and coughing. There may be a genetic factor; the child inherits the tendency for inflammation of the lung airway, which then triggers bronchial muscle hyperreactivity (Shouldice, 2004).
Allergens
, or conditions that cause the inflammation of the airway lining, may be either inhaled or ingested. For example, some people are affected only when they come in contact with certain environmental allergens such as cats and dogs or pollen from grasses, trees, and weeds. Sometimes asthma is exacerbated by cold air or environmental pollutants. For some students, physical exercise in class or participation in a sports activity can be a triggering event. Others may experience a strong reaction to nuts or milk. Teachers use knowledge of a child’s triggers in considering the classroom environment and in planning learning activities. For example, if a child is not able to tolerate tree pollen, a teacher will arrange a class field trip before or after the time when the pollen is most prevalent.
Table 2.1 Examples of Disabilities Considered under Other Health Impairments and Their Characteristics
Disability
Description
Characteristics
Asthma
Inflammation of the bronchial tubes
Coughing and wheezing; decreased ability to run or jump; difficulty completing work or attending to tasks
ADHD
A disorder that affects an individual’s behavior
Inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity
Diabetes, type I
A chronic disorder that results from lack of insulin
Faintness, headache, excessive hunger, nervousness, increased heart rate, cold hands and feet
Diabetes, type II
A chronic disorder that results from obesity and the decrease in the body’s sensitivity to insulin
Leads to a wide variety of long-term complications, including heart disease
Epilepsy
Discharge of abnormal electrical activity to one or more areas of the brain
Twitching of a body part, flushing, vomiting, olfactory hallucinations, a feeling of fear. In generalized seizures, consciousness is lost
Hemophilia
A group of lifelong bleeding disorders
Fatigue, severe bleeding episodes
Lead poisoning
Caused by repeated inhalation, ingestion, or absorption through the skin of lead or lead compounds
Anemia, distractibility, hyperactivity, hyperirritability, impulsiveness, lethargy, listlessness
Leukemia
A malignant disease of the blood-making (hematopoietic) system of the body
Anemia, susceptibility to infection, bruising of the skin, often without any noticeable cause, increased incidence of nosebleeds
Nephritis
Inflammation of the kidney associated with infection
Decreased ability of the kidneys to remove waste efficiently
Rheumatic fever
Inflammatory disease that develops after an infection and can involve the heart, brain, joints, or skin
Fever, joint pain or swelling, skin rash, or cardiac problems such as shortness of breath or chest pain
Sickle cell anemia
Abnormal shape of red blood cells, which decreases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood
Anemia and decreased ability to participate in physical activity during a sickle cell crisis; periods of intense pain
Tourette Syndrome
A neurological disorder characterized by repetitive, stereotyped, involuntary movements and vocalizations called tics.
Tics vary in type, frequency, location, and severity. The average age of onset is between 7 and 10 years with worst symptoms in the early teens and improvement occurring in the late teens and continuing into adulthood.
Diabetes is another common disorder among children and youth. There are two types of diabetes: type I and type II. Type I is insulin-dependent diabetes, one of the most common metabolic disorders of childhood. In this condition the student lacks insulin production, which leads to disturbances in carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism. Researchers are not sure what specifically causes type I diabetes, but there appears to be a genetic susceptibility.
Up to a few years ago, individuals who developed type II diabetes were usually more than 30 years of age and often were overweight. Today a national epidemic of type II diabetes is following the epidemic of obesity in children and youth (Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, 1996; Williamson, 2000). Not only has obesity affected what children can physically accomplish, it has drastically affected their health. Being overweight decreases the body’s sensitivity to insulin. This decrease in insulin sensitivity is a primary factor in the development of type II diabetes. In one study, researchers from the fields of nursing, medicine, and public health found that 7% of a sample of 700 school-age children had already developed three of the leading risk factors for heart disease and type II diabetes, including a high insulin level, high blood pressure, and either elevated levels of fats or not enough of the “good cholesterol” (Williamson).
Children may also be affected by other chronic health conditions. For example, children living in poverty may be exposed to lead by ingesting small pieces of old, peeling paint. Even the dust from lead paint that has become embedded in carpets continues to expose children to the dangers of lead poisoning each time the rug is vacuumed.
When young children suffer traumatic insults to the brain, there may be chronic and long-lasting health impairments. For example, a child might experience a sudden blow to the head as the result of a car accident. Or an angry adult might shake a child, even for a few seconds, causing the brain to bounce back and forth within the skull. These actions can result in bruising, swelling, and bleeding of the brain, resulting in permanent brain damage.
Characteristics of Students with Other Health Impairments
Students with other health impairments generally have medical conditions that require ongoing monitoring and attention (Table. 2.1). Some students need to be hospitalized at times, whereas others simply have reduced stamina that prevents them from following the busy routine of a typical school day. The characteristics of the individual impairment can interfere with the lowered or elevated level of alertness, such as those of students with ADHD.
Early Signs of Other Health Impairments in Young Children
Irregular school attendance is one of the indicators that children are not functioning well. In class, children with other health impairments do not always perform at a level equal to that of their peers. When children and their families first learn about an unexpected, long-lasting, medical condition, they may have many questions, fears, and feelings of anger that they have to deal with. During this time, the child’s doctors may need to experiment with various types of medications and dosages before finding the one that meets the child’s needs.
Sometimes physicians ask parents and teachers to make careful observations of the child’s behavior. Noting periods in the day when the child is very active or very passive may be helpful to physicians as they make decisions about treatment options. More often than not, the treatment decisions include identifying an effective medication and regulating the dosage. Educators work closely with school nurses when medications must be stored and administered at school.
ASTHMA.
When a young child has asthma, the triggers, or conditions that cause it, may not be known. Finding out just what triggers the inflammation is often a process that occurs as medical professionals work with the family. To compound the difficulties, some children may have a specific trigger, whereas for others, a combination of triggers brings on the condition. Parents are valuable resources, informing the school about what factors may bring on an asthma attack in their child.
OBESITY AND DIABETES.
Today the United States as well as many countries across the world are experiencing a serious epidemic of childhood obesity. Over the past decade, childhood obesity for children ages 2–5 has more than doubled (Committee on Progress in Preventing Childhood Obesity, 2007). Obesity in young children may lead to type II diabetes during the school years.
Characteristics of School-Age Students with Other Health Impairments
By the time students reach the upper elementary grades, they may need the emotional support of those around them who understand their fears and anxieties and, in some cases, their anger. Teachers, naturally, are anxious as well, especially if the condition is complex and unfamiliar. With adequate assistance from health care professionals, educators can plan appropriate educational programs that allow children and youth to be with their friends and to continue their education.
ASTHMA.
Working with the family, educators can learn the results of medical tests that have identified the child’s triggers and plan accordingly. For example, if an educator knows that the student has inhaled-induced asthma to certain cleaning agents, the school will need to eliminate this trigger. If the student has exercise-induced asthma, the teacher will need to provide a choice of mild to moderate activities.
If the child has mild asthma, a physician usually prescribes medication to prevent airway-lining inflammation. This medication is typically given through an inhaler. For children with moderately severe asthma, the physician may recommend an anti-inflammatory medication that the child takes on a regular basis to control lining inflammation. In addition, the child may need to supplement this regimen with an inhaler. The severity of the asthma at any one time will affect the child’s stamina and ability to participate in the regular classroom routine and outside activities such as recess or special field trips.
DIABETES.
Type II diabetes requires a lifelong commitment of blood sugar monitoring, healthy eating, regular exercise, and, sometimes, diabetes medications or insulin therapy. Students need to keep their blood sugar level as close to normal as possible to delay or prevent complications. By understanding more about type II diabetes, educators can be aware of possible complications:
• Blood sugar is typcially highest 1 to 2 hours after a meal.
• Physical activity lowers blood sugar levels.
• During a cold or illness, the body produces hormones that raise blood sugar level.
• The body also produces hormones in response to prolonged stress that may prevent insulin from working proplerly. (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2003)
OTHER HEALTH IMPAIRMENTS.
Because students with chronic health impairments often require hospitalizations or periods where they may need to receive home-based instruction, teachers can use technology to assist learning. Safraz was diagnosed with leukemia a few months ago. Some of the teachers at his school began talking about ways that they might continue to support Safraz in his classes. They decided to make their lectures available via podcast so that Safraz could keep up with the material on his iPod. An unexpected result was that the teachers found that the podcasts quickly became popular with all the students, who used them to review the material.
Keeping Current: Other Health Impairments
Sometimes educators need more information about the medical condition of a student. MedlinePlus is an online medical encyclopedia that provides extensive resources on disorders and disabilities. Written in everyday language, it presents information on various disorders, their causes, symptoms, treatment, and prognosis.
For beginning educators, the Council for Exceptional Children, Division for Physical and Health Disabilities provides a good Web site for learning more about educational services for students with other health impairments who receive services in schools, in hospitals, or at home. More information about particular medical conditions can be found at specific Web sites. For example, the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America provides a wealth of information about asthma, including facts and frequently asked questions. The American Diabetes Association Web site contains information about both type I and type II diabetes and about ways to encourage good heath.
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Extending Learning
1. Individuals can be described in terms of their knowledge, motivation, skills, and physical, social, and emotional attributes. How would you describe your characteristics?
2. Working with a small group of students in your class, identify the characteristics of learners whom you have observed with learning disabilities, ADHD, or other health impairments. What additional information would you want to know about these students? What resources can you identify that would assist you in working with these students?
3. Arrange to visit a classroom at the elementary, middle, or secondary school level. Observe the students to see if you can identify the characteristics of students who may have learning or attention problems. Can you observe differences and similarities among students at these different grade levels? What characteristics are more typical of younger students? Of older students?
4. Interview a special education teacher about the students with disabilities with whom the teacher works. What types of disabilities do the students have? What are some of their characteristics?
5. Select one area of disability discussed in this chapter and search the Web to locate additional information on student characteristics. Share your findings with the class.
Chapter 10 Promoting Positive Behavior
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
Describe problem and challenging behaviors.
Compare and contrast various approaches to assessing problem and challenging behaviors.
Discuss planning and implementing instruction that matches student needs in promoting positive behaviors.
Describe how educators can strengthen school and community capacity to promote positive behaviors.
Promoting positive behaviors often involves working with students with severe and persistent behavior challenges who typically have limited academic success, lack of interest in school-related activities, and attendance difficulties (Scanlon & Mellard, 2002). Although these students may be creative and articulate, they are at risk for dropping out of school. This chapter focuses on understanding behaviors and learning more about assessing, planning, and implementing effective instruction to promote positive behaviors.
10.1 Understanding Problem and Challenging Behaviors
Students with problem behaviors do not fit into any one category. Rather, they exhibit a wide variety of behaviors, from extremely aggressive and oppositional to extremely withdrawn and anxious. Aggressive behaviors may involve acts against other individuals, such as fighting, coercion, bullying, negative interactions, and manipulation. Oppositional behaviors include noncompliance and defiance. Students may engage in stealing, lying, drug or alcohol use, and other risky behaviors.
In the classroom, students with antisocial behaviors are often the first ones recognized to have problem behaviors (Figure 10.1). In contrast, students with severe and persistent behavior problems may exhibit forms of behavior not necessarily disruptive to the classroom but definitely disruptive to the student’s learning and academic progress. Classroom observations may indicate that a student is extremely withdrawn, rarely interacting with others or that another student is very anxious, showing extreme reactions to minor everyday events.
Students who carry psychiatric diagnoses in addition to the educational label of emotional disturbance may have a form of mental illness such as depression. This condition often makes it difficult to come to school or to stay the entire school day.
Figure 10.1 What we know about students with antisocial behaviors
Source: Adapted from “Preventing Problems by Improving Behavior,” by D. M. Kamps, 2002, in Preventing Problem Behaviors, p. 12 (B. Algozzine and P. Kay, Eds.), Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Lack of physical strength and a feeling of hopelessness often prevent students from working cooperatively with others or completing individual assignments.
Severe behavior problems are not limited to students with a diagnosis of emotional disturbance. Students with other disabilities, such as learning disabilities, mental retardation, or autism, may have compounding disabilities that include challenging or problem behaviors that persist over time. Whatever diagnoses these students carry, they probably lack many of the basic social skills discussed in Chapter 9, in addition to having problem behaviors. They may have limited insight into the feelings of other students or adults. Teachers working with students with severe and persistent problem behaviors find that each student is unique. These teachers must work with other professionals to gather information about the student’s behaviors and to develop a behavior plan that meets the student’s unique needs.
Snapshot: Sandy Stream Middle School
Troy Donahue, who recently graduated from college, took his first job in a public school as a case manager and behavior specialist at Sandy Stream Middle School. His responsibilities include working closely with the general education teachers to support students with challenging behaviors in the classroom. This morning he is meeting with the A team, one of two groups of sixth-grade teachers who are responsible for a group of 35 students. Several of the teachers have questions about some of the students. The team leader, an experienced middle school educator, facilitates the meeting.
The math teacher begins, “I am having some problems with Thomas Jones. He is so aggressive and disruptive in class, making strange noises and yelling out obscenities. At first I tried ignoring his behavior, but of course the other students react and then I just lose the entire class.” Another teacher agreed with this account and voiced additional concerns about the student’s identified learning disability and his difficulty with reading content material.
Troy knew that the disruptive behavior described by the teachers could be motivated by a number of reasons, including Thomas’s wish to escape the situation or his wish for peer attention. As the discussion continued, Troy shared his knowledge about student-motivated behavior and ways to assess behaviors through classroom observation.
10.2 Assessing Problem and Challenging Behaviors
IDEA requires IEP team members to address behavioral as well as learning problems, not only for students with emotional disturbance but also for all students with disabilities. When students have behavioral problems, the IEP team must conduct a functional behavioral assessment, including one or more assessment approaches that focus on identifying the biological, social, affective, and environmental factors that initiate, sustain, or end the behavior in question. Based on the functional behavioral assessment, team members then develop a behavioral intervention plan that describes the skills that students need, the instruction that will be provided, and how the plan will be evaluated.
Planning a Functional Behavioral Assessment
Educators use a functional behavioral assessment (Crone & Horner, 2003) to examine student behavior and to assist in identifying its function, or what the student obtains or is able to avoid as a result of the behavior. More specifically, a
functional behavioral assessment
consists of assessment approaches that focus on identifying social, affective, cognitive, and/or environmental factors that are student specific and are associated with the occurrence (or nonoccurrence) of specific behaviors (Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 2001). In a review of the research, Choi and Kim (1998) provide compelling evidence of the effectiveness of functional behavioral assessment of students with problem behaviors. Other studies indicate the effectiveness of interventions derived from functional behavioral assessment (Stage, Jackson, & Moscovitz, 2006; Wright-Gallo, Higbee, & Reagon, 2006) and positive outcomes over time (Kern, Gallagher, Starosta, Hickman, & George, 2006).
Information collected during this assessment helps the special educator and other members of the IEP team plan intervention and positive behavioral supports that will be written into the student’s behavior intervention plan. The behavior intervention plan describes the skills that students need, the instruction that will be provided, and how the plan will be evaluated (Cohen & Spenciner, 2007).
IDEA requires that the IEP team meet to formulate a functional behavioral assessment and to develop a behavioral intervention plan within 10 days of a disciplinary action by school personnel for behavior such as carrying a gun to school or possessing illegal drugs [34 CFR 300.530(f)] [20 U.S.C. 1415(k)(1)(F)]. If the student already has a behavioral intervention plan, the team must review and revise it as necessary to ensure that it addresses the problem behavior(s) on which the disciplinary action focused.
Identifying the Problem Behavior
The first step in planning a functional behavioral assessment is identifying the problem behavior in terms that are concrete and observable. For example, a classroom teacher describes the behavior of a student named Thomas as “aggressive and disruptive.” The special educator has to define the behavior in more objective terms so that people can measure and record it. A description such as “Thomas is aggressive and disruptive” is too vague and does not state the nature of the problem behavior or where it occurs.
Figure 10.2 Is the problem behavior linked to a skill need?
Source: From Addressing Student Problem Behavior, Part I: An IEP Team’s Introduction to Functional Behavioral Assessment and Behavior Intervention Plans (p. 5), Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 1998, Washington, DC: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice.
“Thomas threw a book, knocked over his desk, kicked it, and yelled obscenities at the teacher and other students” is specific, is objective, and describes his behavior in terms that everyone can observe. The description also identifies the context in which the educator observed the behavior.
Considering the Function of the Behavior
During the meeting, IEP team members consider the function of the behavior for the student. Does the student understand the behavioral expectations? If not, the behavior may be linked to a skill need (Figure 10.2). Is the student trying to avoid a demanding task? If so, then the student may have the skill but lacks motivation to modify the behavior (Figure 10.3).
Using Various Assessment Approaches
A functional behavioral assessment uses multiple assessment approaches, including observations, record reviews, interviews, and standardized instruments.
Figure 10.3 Does the student have the skill but not the desire to modify the behavior?
Source: From Addressing Student Problem Behavior,
Part I
: An IEP Team’s Introduction to Functional Behavioral Assessment and Behavior Intervention Plans (p. 6), Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 1998, Washington, DC: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice.
Observations
Educators and other team members can conduct observations of the student in the classroom, in the cafeteria, or in other school settings. This involves observing and recording not only the student’s behavior but also situational factors associated with the behavior. The observer notes events that occurred just before the behavior and the consequences that followed the behavior. Figure 10.4 illustrates an observation form used to collect this type of information. The teacher conducted the observation during lunch in the school cafeteria. We’ll learn more about how this observation helped in planning for the student later in this chapter. Conducting multiple observations over a period of several days helps ensure that the information is consistent and reliable.
Figure 10.4 Observation form for functional behavioral assessment
Record Reviews
The teacher also examines a student’s records. A review of past academic work and disciplinary reports indicates when difficulties occurred and the types of interventions that the teacher tried. Attendance records provide information about the number of days absent or tardy and patterns of truancy. The student’s health history provides information regarding conditions that may require medical attention or prescription drugs. The IEP team will need to know about any medical conditions that impact the student’s behavior. Medical information about Thomas’s condition was of critical importance. When Troy Donahue reviewed his school records, he discovered a note that Thomas had recently been diagnosed with Tourette’s syndrome. Troy knew that one of the characteristics of this syndrome is uncontrollable verbal outbursts.
Structured Interviews
Structured interviews
consist of a set of questions that the educator or another professional considers and plans before meeting with an individual. Interviews provide unique information from each individual’s perspective. Parents can provide information about the student’s behavior at home with siblings and friends. A school social worker can describe the student’s behavior in small-group interactions. Classroom teachers can describe settings in which the behavior does and does not occur. The student can provide a unique perspective, too. For example, the special educator might conduct an interview with Thomas with questions such as, What happened to you to make you feel so angry?
Standardized Instruments
Commercial behavior checklists and rating scales provide standardized measures for collecting information. Usually the teacher, parent, and student complete similar instruments. Sometimes a student’s peers complete them as well. This information provides different evaluations of the student’s behavior at home and at school. The examiner can test different diagnostic hypotheses to determine the settings in which behavior problems occur and how serious the behavior is perceived to be by individuals close to the student.
Analyzing and Synthesizing Information
Team members meet to compare and analyze the assessment information. Are there any patterns associated with the behavior? For example, does Thomas resort to throwing materials and shouting obscenities when he is frustrated and unable to complete his assignments? How does his medical condition of Tourette’s syndrome affect his behavior? (Behaviors associated with Tourette’s syndrome cause Thomas to vocalize and curse at unexpected times during class and display distracting head jerks.) If the team cannot determine any patterns of behavior, it reviews the approaches used to gather the information and identifies additional ways of assessing the behavior.
A Special educator teaches replacement behaviors that serve the same function as the inappropriate behavior.
Once a pattern of behavior emerges, the team establishes a
hypothesis
, which describes the probable function(s) of the behavior and allows the team to predict antecedent conditions or when the behavior is most likely (and least likely) to occur and the probable consequences that serve to maintain the behavior. For example, Thomas’s IEP team hypothesized that his behavior was caused by academic frustration and social ridicule by his classmates. To learn more about conducting a functional behavioral analysis and the process of hypothesis generation, refer to the Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice’s Web site. In addition to providing extensive information, the site has examples of useful forms for IEP teams to use in conducting a functional behavioral assessment and developing a behavioral intervention plan.
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10.3 Planning and Implementing Instruction
Once the IEP team has completed the functional behavioral assessment and developed a hypothesis concerning the behavior, team members develop (or revise) the student’s
behavioral intervention plan
. The plan addresses the function of the problem behavior by teaching the student more acceptable behaviors that address the motivation behind the behavior. Developed by the IEP team, this intervention plan describes the skills that students need, the instruction that will be provided, and how the plan will be evaluated. Researchers have found that a functional behavioral assessment and a behavioral intervention plan help students improve their behavior and prevent more serious behaviors (Ingram, 2003; Kamps et al., 1995; Scott, Liaupsin, Nelson, & Jolivette, 2003).
Figure 10.5 Considerations for designing behavioral intervention plans
Source: Addressing Student Problem Behavior,
Part III
: Creating Positive Intervention Plans and Supports (p. 6), Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 2000, Washington, DC: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice.
Behavioral Intervention Plans
Planning the behavioral intervention involves team members working together (Figure 10.5). Based on the information collected during the functional behavioral assessment, the plan
• addresses the student’s skill needs and/or performance needs;
• includes positive strategies;
• describes any classroom environment accommodations;
• describes any program accommodations or modifications;
• describes any curricular accommodations or modifications;
• describes supplementary aids and supports; and
• includes a crisis/emergency plan, if necessary.
Components of a Behavioral Intervention Plan
Addressing Skills That Students Need.
Students with behavioral problems often lack skills in communicating effectively with others, such as reading and interpreting body language and controlling anger and disappointment. To address students’ skill needs, the special educator may need to teach social skills, positive behavioral skills, and academic skills.
The behavioral intervention plan (Figure 10.6) includes a description of the problem behavior so that team members will recognize its onset. If the student lacks specific skills, the plan describes these skills and/or
replacement behaviors
that must be substituted for inappropriate behaviors. The plan describes specific goals and objectives for obtaining new skills and replacement behaviors and instructional procedures that teachers will use. For example, Thomas’s plan states that he will work with the behavior specialist to verbally identify and describe the physical signs that he experiences when he is becoming angry. In time he will learn to recognize when he is becoming angry and seek assistance rather than acting out. The behavior specialist will also teach Thomas replacement behaviors in role-playing situations. If a teacher makes changes in the physical environment, these are described in the plan. Finally, the plan specifies how instruction will be implemented in various settings and the persons responsible. Educators report that teaching positive behavior strategies as part of the regular academic program is particularly effective in teaching replacement behaviors (Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 2000).
Figure 10.6 Thomas’s behavioral intervention plan
Source: Addressing Student Problem Behavior,
Part III
: Creating Positive Intervention Plans and Supports (pp. B5–B10), Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 2000, Washington, DC: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice.
After completing all the components of the behavioral intervention plan, the IEP team describes how the plan will be evaluated. Team members describe how, when, where, and how often they will measure the problem behaviors and identify individuals who will be responsible for the evaluation. They determine a schedule for reviewing or modifying the plan based on the criteria for behavior change.
INCLUDING SUPPORTS.
The IEP team also identifies
supports
, or people and/or modifications to the environment that will assist the student to be educated with students without disabilities to the maximum extent appropriate. Students such as Thomas may need supports, as seen in Figure 10.6, such as a classroom modification and an individual with similar disabilities from the community who can provide mentoring, added to the behavioral intervention plan. Personnel supports can include the school guidance counselor, school social worker, or psychologist who works with the student to improve behavior. Or a student might work with the school mechanic, custodian, or secretary for a class period when the student needs to avoid a structured learning environment such as the classroom. The parent can provide support by assisting the student in organizing school materials and constructing a schedule for after-school activities, including homework. Other students can provide supports, too. For example, the special education teacher made arrangements with a high school student who had similar interests to meet with Thomas on a weekly basis to provide academic encouragement.
Supports can also include modifications to the environment. For example, a teacher might rearrange the room to provide more space for small-group projects. A counter along the back wall could be cleared to allow a student to complete individual assignments while standing at the counter instead of seated at a desk.
Evaluation of the Behavioral Intervention Plan
The IEP team reviews and evaluates the behavioral intervention plan during the annual meeting, but members may review the plan more frequently if necessary. If the student has met the behavioral goals and objectives, the plan should be revised to include the new goals and objectives. If the plan does not seem to be effective and there is little change in the student’s behavior, team members need to review the plan, decide whether to conduct further assessment, and develop a new plan that will produce positive changes in behavior.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
Creating Relevant Educational Experiences
Behavioral expectations are an integral aspect of the culture that surrounds us. Some families may expect children to respect and not question authority figures, whereas others encourage children to be assertive and “speak up” to make their opinions and wishes known. Thus, for some students, the culture of the school, home, and community all hold similar behavioral expectations, but other students find a marked contrast in cultural expectations as they move from home to school to “hanging out” in their neighborhoods.
The factors in schools that exacerbate inequities include curriculum and pedagogy (Nieto, 2000), as well as behavioral expectations and communication styles. Teachers can work to create culturally responsive educational experiences by building on students’ interests while providing high-quality academic instruction. Educators search out and provide information related to students’ lives and place instructional information in a context that is familiar to students. They respect and model an appreciation of individual differences and similarities and provide students with positive examples of role models. The Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence is an excellent resource that assists teachers in responding to classroom diversity. Their Web site includes research findings and standards for pedagogy.
Questions for Reflection
1. Explore the Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence Web site. What information regarding culturally relevant education did you find most helpful?
2. Consider the home culture of a student with whom you have worked. What instructional activities would you create to provide a relevant learning experience for the student?
3. WebQuests, inquiry-oriented activities in which students use Web-based information, often build on students’ interests while providing high-quality academic instruction. Describe the qualities you might find in a WebQuest that would create a relevant learning experience for students with whom you have worked.
Classroom Instruction
Setting Event
Setting events
affect the physical or emotional state of a student at any given time and play a major role in the classroom each day (Gable, Hendrickson, Tonelson, & Van Acker, 2002; Horner, Vaughn, Day, & Ard, 1996; Moss et al. 2005; Wahler & Graves, 1983). A student who has an argument with another student on the bus begins the day in a different emotional state than on another day, when a friend invites the student to share a seat. Another student who had little sleep the night before arrives in a different physical state than when her or she is well rested. These events not only influence a student’s behavior and alter the effects of reinforcement that are part of the student’s IEP but can also produce particular behaviors that may go unnoticed unless the educator looks beyond the events immediately preceding problem behaviors (Horner et al., 1996). Figure 10.7 illustrates the effects of different setting events on the behavior of a student. Usually teacher praise carries high value for this student, but because of his earlier fighting (setting event 1) or his headache (setting event 3), the value of teacher praise is reduced.
Figure 10.7 Effects of setting events on problem behaviors
Source: Adapted from “The Relationship Between Setting Events and Problem Behavior: Expanding Our Understanding of Behavioral Support,” by R. H. Horner, B. J. Vaughn, H. M. Day, and W. R. Ard, 1996, in Positive Behavioral Support: Including People with Difficult Behavior in the Community, p. 383 (L. K. Koegel, R. L. Koegel, and G. Dunlap, Eds.), Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Motivation behind Behaviors
Students with behavior problems often engage in inappropriate behavior because they consider this behavior more desirable or acceptable than the appropriate behavior. The student may not be motivated or may not see any value in the appropriate behavior. Kamps (2002) identifies a number of possible teacher interventions, depending on a student’s motivation for engaging in problem behaviors, including
• attention-motivated behavior;
• escape-motivated behavior;
• access/control-motivated behavior; and
• sensory/stimulation-motivated behavior.
1.
Attention-Motivated Behavior.
Begin by teaching appropriate attention-seeking behaviors. For example, when a student is seeking another person’s attention, an educator teaches the student to say the person’s name once and wait for the person to look at or acknowledge the student. The educator allows the student a limited number of requests for attention in each class period and keeps a visual tally of the requests, using praise when the student demonstrates the positive behavior. During class, the teacher also uses specific praise and privileges for peers who model appropriate attention-seeking behavior. The teacher avoids verbal reprimands and, only as a last resort, uses timeout.
Timeout
is a procedure whereby a student is removed from the group or activity and placed in a neutral setting for a specified period of time.
Timeout should be used sparingly for short “cool-down” periods. For example, a teacher may place a student in timeout when the student engages in violent behavior. Because timeout helps protect the safety of the student and other students, it is a helpful procedure; however, when a student is in timeout, valuable classroom learning time is lost. A student should be placed in timeout for only a few minutes.
2.
Escape-Motivated Behavior.
The teacher may begin by reviewing current classroom practices and evaluating learning activities to make sure that students have multiple opportunities for hands-on activities. The teacher structures lessons and learning activities so that easier activities are interspersed with more difficult tasks. Students are given opportunities to choose the order in which the learning activities will be completed, and the teacher provides written examples, or exemplars, of well-done activities or tasks.
The teacher encourages students to ask for help in an appropriate manner during the instructional lesson and learning activities and always responds to these requests. The teacher provides additional assistance to the student and monitors the student’s performance frequently. By reinforcing the student’s on-task behavior at 3- to 5-minute intervals, the teacher helps the student increase self-management. The teacher does not use timeout because this only serves to reinforce the student’s escape-motivated behavior.
3.
Access/Control-Motivated Behavior.
Educators begin by teaching the student acceptable ways to interact with others and request access to materials or an activity. Students also learn how to manage disappointment and anger. To control student behavior, teachers may use
contingency statements
, which include the condition that the student must satisfy before engaging in a desired behavior. For example, a teacher announces, “After all the materials are put away, you may have the remaining time to check your e-mail or listen to music. We have 10 minutes before we need to get ready to go home.”
4.
Sensory/Stimulation-Motivated Behavior.
IEP team members and other professional consultants decide whether to ignore the behavior if it does not disrupt the student’s learning or the learning of others. For behaviors that do interfere with learning, teachers interrupt and redirect them. For example, Luis constantly clicked his pen—off-on, off-on. His teacher provided a Koosh ball that allowed him the needed sensory stimulation but was not distracting to others.
Assuming Ownership in Improving Behaviors
In Chapter 9 we learned how students in one high school use Palm handhelds (PDAs) as AT to improve their academic work. PDAs also increase opportunities for students to assume ownership in improving their behaviors. When a student begins working on positive behaviors, a PDA provides an easy, efficient way to record behaviors and monitor daily progress. As part of the behavior support plan, the teacher—or student—sets up a file, perhaps in a word-processing or spreadsheet format on the classroom computer, and then downloads the file to a PDA. The student uses the system to record and manage positive behaviors. Aside from the advantages of having a “cool tool,” a student can use the PDA at any time during the day, while going to different classes, in the cafeteria, or on the bus. The PDA eliminates the problem of lost pencils or missing paper recording sheets. At the beginning of each school day, the student uploads the data to the classroom computer, where it can be added to a weekly chart.
Gradually, the student assumes more and more responsibility for managing behavior by learning new skills, replacement behaviors, and self-management strategies. The following sections describe how teachers structure positive classroom environments, provide clear expectations, and teach compliance, conflict resolution, and mediation.
Structuring Positive Classroom Environments
Supporting students with severe, persistent behavior problems requires a high level of self-awareness on the part of teachers. Teachers are realistic about their capabilities and know when to request assistance from other team members, such as other teachers, the school social worker or school psychologist, or the building administrator.
In planning instructional activities, teachers are mindful of sources of frustration for students, such as boredom, an irrelevant curriculum, and disorganized learning activities (Fitzsimmons, 1998). Teachers recognize and respond to various stages of student frustration (Figure 10.8).
Figure 10.8 The stages of frustration and examples of appropriate teacher responses
Source: Adapted from Violence and Aggression in Children and Youth, by M. K. Fitzsimmons, 1998, Reston, VA: ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education.
Teachers work to create structured and consistent, yet nurturing and caring environments, establishing trust and rapport with and among students. They hold high expectations for all students and provide high-quality academic instruction in which students are actively engaged. Teachers work to make learning fun and induce a positive mood. For example, at the beginning of the day the teacher might do the following:
• Ask students to create three goals that they would like to achieve during the day.
• Select an inspiring video segment to view and briefly discuss.
Educators can provide many opportunities throughout the day for students to make choices as they complete learning activities and assignments and strengthen appropriate behaviors. Students can choose where to sit during individual or small-group work—or where to stand. They can choose the order in which they will complete two or more assignments or which part of an assignment to complete, such as all the even-numbered items or all the odd-numbered ones. They can also choose which questions of a set to answer or how to demonstrate their achievement from among a list of possibilities.
WHAT RESEARCH SAYS ABOUT CHOICE MAKING
An emerging area of research indicates that when educators include opportunities for students to make choices during academic instruction, positive results occur. Reviews of the literature found that when students were allowed to choose the task, their accuracy and completion of academic assignments increased and disruptive behaviors decreased (Jolivette, Stichter, & McCormick, 2002; Morgan, 2006; Shogren, Faggella-Luby, Bae, & Wehmeyer, 2004).
Providing Clear Expectations
Effective approaches for promoting positive behavior begin with preventive measures for minimizing discipline problems. Educators communicate clear expectations for student behavior and provide positive and corrective feedback, and students learn to monitor their own behaviors and evaluate their progress. Teachers ensure that students are treated fairly and consistently. This section discusses establishing rules, identifying procedures, and teaching compliance.
ESTABLISHING RULES AND IDENTIFYING PROCEDURES.
Special educators, in collaboration with students, construct classroom rules, usually written statements, that describe student behavioral expectations. Through words and/or pictures, the rules illustrate what students should do, rather than not do, and are written in positive terms. When teachers involve students in developing a set of classroom rules, everyone accepts ownership of the rules. In addition, students are more likely to follow the rules and to help reinforce them with others. Classroom rules are more effective when they are developed at the beginning of the school year. The teacher keeps the list of rules relatively short—no more than five or six—and posts them in a highly visible place. The teacher begins by demonstrating (or inviting students to demonstrate) each of the rules and then reviews and refers to them frequently. The teacher is careful to consistently reinforce the classroom rules daily. Sometimes teachers must review classroom rules at the beginning of the school day and reteach them to the group or to individual students as necessary. Martin and Pear (2002, p. 212) define effective rules as rules that describe deadlines for specific behavior, even when the outcomes are delayed.
One first-grade class and their teacher developed the following set of rules and posted them at the front of the classroom for all to see.
In Our Classroom, We
• use quiet voices;
• wear our walking shoes;
• put on our listening ears; and
• keep our hands and feet to ourselves.
Teachers must follow through with consequences when a student does not follow the rules. A consequence may influence whether or how frequently the behavior occurs again. Students need to understand that there are consequences when they do not follow classroom rules. Teachers should post consequences in a visible place as a reminder.
A fifth-grade teacher posted these consequences on the classroom wall.
What Happens if I Don’t Follow the Rules:
• First time, a teacher or student reminds me.
• Second time, I receive a check mark by my name.
• Third time, I miss recess.
• Fourth time, a message is sent to my parents.
When students have difficulty following rules, teachers can help them learn to monitor their own behaviors. By using a checklist (Figure 10.9), students can observe their own behaviors, record them, and evaluate them. Self-monitoring helps students internalize their positive behaviors, and recording sheets or checklists provide a visual reminder of what is expected of them (Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 1999).
Figure 10.9 Teacher-designed self-monitoring card for students
Sometimes people confuse classroom rules with classroom procedures.
Classroom procedures
describe the steps or components of daily activities that must be followed to complete tasks. For example, a first-grade teacher posts the following classroom procedures on the bathroom wall:
• Please flush the toilet.
• Wash your hands with soap and warm water.
• Turn off the light.
A middle school teacher lists the following procedures on the classroom’s Web page regarding homework assignments:
• Carefully read the directions before beginning the assignment.
• Use a spell-checker after you complete your draft.
• Pass in your paper or send it as an attached file to your teacher on Friday.
Using Instructional Strategies for Active Responding
Teachers who use positive behavioral supports and develop learning activities that actively engage students provide an atmosphere conducive to student learning. In the following section, we examine several instructional strategies that special educators use to support and promote positive behavior in the classroom. After all, high academic expectations and active student engagement complement good classroom support. Students who are actively engaged in learning display positive classroom behaviors and a marked decrease in problem behaviors, whereas inappropriate teaching methods can exacerbate behavior problems in the classroom.
One teaching method that has broad research support for its use and effectiveness with students who have learning and behavior problems is direct instruction, which you read about in Chapter 6. Teachers using direct instruction can include instructional strategies that support a high level of student involvement as well as frequent and immediate feedback, such as choral responding, response cards, and guided notes.
CHORAL RESPONDING.
Choral responding requires students to respond as a group, either aloud or electronically with a hand-held clicker, to the teacher’s questions. For example, an elementary resource room teacher using choral responding asks the reading group, “What sound do you hear at the beginning of the word pumpkin?” Each child replies “puh.” By scanning the group, the teacher can monitor the children’s answers. A student who doesn’t know the answer hears the correct response. The teacher may say, “Tell me one more time.” All students can respond again, including the students who didn’t know the answer.
In an inclusive secondary classroom, the teacher uses computer technology to increase student participation. Each student uses a handheld clicker to indicate his or her choice of an answer in response to the teacher’s questions. The data projector displays the responses anonymously on the screen for all to see. This provides a quick way to assess student understanding of information without embarrassment.
WHITEBOARDS/RESPONSE CARDS.
Like choral responding, individual whiteboards or response cards actively involve students. Each student uses the board to indicate the answer to a teacher’s question. Response cards can be as simple as color-coded yes-or-no cards. The teacher might use these cards during shared-book time to provide an opportunity for each child to predict what will happen next as the children listen to a story. “Do you think that Heather will go down into the cave?” The children decide by holding up a yes or a no response card.
The teacher can use paper, cut in 3-inch by 5-inch pieces, to provide each student with a set of blank response cards. Students can write their answers on the cards and hold them up in response to the teacher’s questions. Or, students can use individual, wipeable whiteboards with markers.
WHAT THE RESEARCH SAYS ABOUT WHITEBOARDS AND RESPONSE CARDS.
Research findings support the use of response cards for increasing academic achievement in both elementary and secondary students with disabilities. In a meta-analysis of 18 studies, Randolph (2007) found that the use of response cards was more effective for students than hand raising in terms of test achievement, participation, and reduction of disruptive behavior.
Teachers who used whiteboards to encourage class participation during mathematics instruction found that the frequency of active student response was greater and there were less disruptive behaviors than when students were asked only to raise their hands to participate (Lambert, Cartledge, Heward, & Lo, 2006). Other researches, who found similar results when using response cards, further noted an increase in math quiz scores (Christle & Schuster, 2003).
GUIDED NOTES.
To help students become more actively involved in lesson activities, a middle school or high school special educator can prepare guided notes that outline the lesson material. The guided notes can include new vocabulary words, important dates, and the key ideas that the teacher wants the students to know. The teacher distributes a copy of the guided notes to each student prior to the lesson, either through e-mail or as a hard-copy handout. During the lesson, students complete the outline provided in the guided notes by listening carefully to the lecture and writing down the information.
WHAT THE RESEARCH SAYS ABOUT GUIDED NOTES.
Research studies indicated that the use of guided notes improved academic achievement for adolescents with learning and behavior problems (Hamilton, Seibert, Gardner, & Talbert-Johnson, 2000; Lazarus, 1991, 1993; Sweeney et al., 1999). Furthermore, students reported that they preferred using guided notes rather than their own notes (Hamilton et al.; Sweeney et al.).
Teaching Compliance
Teachers expect students to follow requests, directions, and classroom rules as they build affective and academic skills. Many students with severe, persistent emotional and behavioral problems demonstrate oppositional, defiant, and noncompliant behaviors. To begin to increase student compliance, a teacher can stand next to the student and state the request in a normal, unemotional voice, allowing a few seconds for compliance to begin and praising the compliant behavior (Kamps, 2002).
Successful teachers use consistent procedures and carry out the teaching strategy firmly and with confidence. Sometimes teachers inadvertently reinforce noncompliant behavior by (a) asking a student repeatedly to complete a request (thus teaching that the student doesn’t have to follow the direction the first time the teacher asks) or (b) allowing a student to negotiate delaying compliance (no consequence for continuing to play music even though class has begun; adapted from Kamps, 2002, p. 16).
Because noncompliance may be a well-learned problem behavior, special educators often need to use specific teaching strategies, such as precision requests (De Martini-Scully, Bray, & Kehle, 2000; Musser, Bray, Kehle, & Jenson, 2001), precorrection (Yu, Darch, & Rabren, 2002), differential attention (Young & Wasserman, 2002), behavioral momentum (Calderhead, Filter, & Albin, 2006; Lee, 2006), and compliance games (Sheridan, 1995–2000).
Kamps (cited in Algozzine & Kay, 2002) provides descriptions of these strategies, which are summarized here.
Precision requests
are intentional ways that teachers present a request that will maximize student compliance. Here are the steps that a special educator follows:
1. The teacher explains the request and consequences simply and clearly.
2. The teacher uses eye contact and says please.
3. The teacher waits 5 to 10 seconds for the student to comply.
4. If the student does not comply, the teacher makes a second request, “I need you to … please.”
5. If the student still does not comply, then the teacher issues the preplanned consequence.
Precorrection
consists of instruction in appropriate behaviors and reminders before the students need to use the behaviors in context. Here are the steps that a special educator follows:
1. The teacher identifies the context and the predictable problem behavior.
2. The teacher specifies the expected behavior.
3. The teacher arranges the practice setting.
A special educator uses precorrection to promote positive behavior.
4. The teacher and student rehearse the expected behavior.
5. The teacher provides strong reinforcement.
6. The teacher prompts expected behaviors.
7. The teacher monitors the expected behavior in the natural setting and context.
Differential attention
is ignoring behaviors that tend to be attention seeking, reinforcing alternative or appropriate behaviors. Here are the steps that a special educator follows:
1. The teacher ignores inappropriate behavior (breaks eye contact, does not speak to student, walks away, or engages with an appropriate student).
2. The teacher looks for opportunities to pay attention to appropriate behavior as soon as possible following misbehavior.
3. The teacher rewards appropriate behavior at a high rate.
Behavioral momentum
involves requesting two or three easy behaviors immediately prior to a difficult request in order to increase compliance. Here is how the special educator plans this strategy: The teacher identifies multiple requests that student is highly likely to follow.
IN PRACTICE
Special educators who teach students with behavioral and emotional problems must address both academic and behavioral concerns. Sometimes a student’s condition prevents the student from attending classes on a regular basis, perhaps due to the need for hospitalization or specialized treatment for an acute episode. Lack of regular attendance often adversely affects a student’s academic program and, in turn, his or her motivation, self-concept, and self-esteem. Students with challenging and problem behaviors, like students with other disabilities, require highly trained special educators who demonstrate (a) sensitivity to individual needs, (b) knowledge and skills in designing and implementing appropriate instruction, and (c) high ethical standards.
Classroom Focus
Jeremiah is a ninth-grade student who has attended specialized schools for several years, where he could receive intensive counseling and therapy for antisocial behaviors and anger management. After demonstrating improved performance, he transferred back to his community school. Jeremiah is eligible for special education under the category of ED (emotional disturbance). Although Jeremiah scores within the average range on intelligence tests, he is substantially below grade level on standardized achievement tests in English, mathematics, social studies, and science. Jeremiah still demonstrates difficulty in cooperating with peers for any extended period of time because of a quick temper and limited social skills. When he becomes argumentative and his behaviors begin to escalate, the classroom teacher sends him to the principal’s office.
Working Toward Solutions
Levi Jacobs, Jeremiah’s special educator, discusses her work with Jeremiah, “The IEP team developed a new plan for Jeremiah. As part of the plan, I am working closely with the classroom teacher to increase positive behaviors. Last week, in talking with Jeremiah, I learned that he loves to solve math puzzles. So each day one of us teachers puts a new visual puzzle on the board. He seems to be very motivated to be the first student in the group to solve the puzzle.”
Levi continues, “We plan to use his interest with puzzles to introduce him to a small-group project with his peers. As part of a geometry unit, students will be designing and making their own puzzles. During the free period at the end of the school day, Jeremiah will meet with me for individualized instruction and simulated practice in working with a small group of peers. At the same time, I will introduce strategies that he can use to remove himself from a frustrating situation before an outburst.”
What the Research Says
According to the National Longitudinal Transition Study—2 (2006), teachers report that most students with disabilities in Grades 7–12 control their behavior well (46%) or very well (33%). The remaining group, or approximately 21% of students with disabilities, engages in problem behaviors in the classroom. These behaviors involve primarily arguing and fighting.
Teachers report that students were primarily disciplined with in-school rather than out-of-school suspensions. When examined by gender, researchers found interesting demographic differences. Although both boys and girls were reported to argue and fight about equally, teachers reported almost twice as many disciplinary actions for boys.
MyEducationLab: Your Turn
How might you minimize behavior problems in your classroom? What precautions might you take to ensure fair and equitable treatment of students by gender and by race? What might you do differently if you were working with older students rather than younger students? To explore these questions further, go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. Then watch the videos entitled “Managing Behavior: Preschool” and “Teacher Praise” and then share your ideas with other members of the class.
Next, explore other ways to promote positive behaviors in the classroom and some of the controversies related to working with students with behavioral and emotional problems. Read the articles entitled “A Profile of Bullying at School” and “Discipline and the Special Education Student” and be prepared to discuss the key concepts of the articles with your peers.
Compliance games
include reinforcement systems designed to reward student compliance to teacher requests. Here is how the games work
Prior to a task or assignment
1. Students are divided into teams.
2. The teams select specific/unique compliance phrase (e.g., Sure I will; Sure, anytime; or No problem).
3. Students receive points for their team for saying the phrase and complying with requests.
4. Teams earn rewards for reaching compliance goals.
Teaching Conflict Resolution
Conflict resolution
is a group of positive approaches that a facilitator uses to assist two or more individuals to resolve conflict in daily life. Conflict resolution concepts can be taught alone or within the standard school curriculum. Powell, McLaughlin, Savage, and Zehm (2001) describe three steps of conflict resolution:
FIRST STEP: NEGOTIATION.
Negotiation is a process whereby students attempt to work out an agreement. The goal is to arrive at a win-win solution, one that benefits both students. The steps in the negotiation process are (Johnson & Johnson, as cited in Powell et al., 2001):
a. Describe what each student wants.
b. Describe what each student feels.
c. Exchange reasons for specifying positions that have created the conflict.
d. Understand each other’s position.
e. Invent options for mutual benefit.
f. Reach an agreement that is mutually beneficial.
SECOND STEP: MEDIATION.
When students cannot reach an agreement by themselves, a third party becomes involved. Many schools use
peer mediation
, a process that involves students who are trained in the negotiation process and who act as a third party.
Before mediation begins, a period of time is provided for each student to cool off; then each student must agree to make a commitment to the mediation process. The mediator works to keep the discussion focused on the conflict and not sidetracked. The role of the mediator is to assist the two parties in finding a solution and to facilitate the process so that students can learn how to use it on their own. When an agreement is reached, it is written down and everyone signs it. When an agreement cannot be reached, the process moves to arbitration.
THIRD STEP: ARBITRATION.
Arbitration is a process whereby a solution to the conflict is imposed by a third party, such as a special educator or counselor. Sometimes the arbitrator asks students to submit a written solution to the conflict and explains that the fairest one will be selected.
10.4 Strengthening School and Community Capacity
Schoolwide Behavior Support Systems
Because many students need positive behavior instruction, schools are reexamining traditional discipline procedures and providing opportunities for students to learn self-discipline. There are several common features of schoolwide behavioral support systems:
• Total staff commitment to managing behavior, whatever approach is taken
• Clearly defined and communicated expectations and rules
• Consequences and clearly stated procedures for correcting rule-breaking behaviors
• An instructional component for teaching students self-control and/or social skill strategies
• A support plan to address the needs of students with chronic, challenging behaviors (Blum, 2005)
For students with identified disabilities, IDEA mandates specific disciplinary action when students violate codes of conduct, school rules, or present a danger to themselves or others (Figure 10.10). As part of any discipline action and possible change of placement, the IEP team must review all relevant information in the student’s file to determine more information about the student’s behavior that caused the violation and if the behavior is a manifestation of the student’s disability. If the team decides that this was indeed the case, then the school must take immediate steps to remedy the student’s program. The team must conduct a functional behavioral assessment, unless the school has already completed such an assessment, and implement a behavioral intervention plan. If the student already has a behavioral intervention plan, the team must review the plan and modify it as necessary (Figure 10.11).
Figure 10.10 IDEA and discipline of students with disabilities
Figure 10.11 Manifestation determination and IDEA requirements
Snapshot: John Fuller School District
Administrators and educators at the John Fuller School District are in the third year of implementing a districtwide positive behavior support system. The first year, teachers agreed on a districtwide
code of conduct
(Figure 10.12). A code of conduct defines the behavior that teachers, administrators and other school staff, and parents expect of students. Sometimes students, along with teachers and other school personnel, sign their names to a public display of the school’s code of conduct. When students do not follow the code, teachers use a standard set of schoolwide disciplinary procedures. When the behavior escalates beyond typical minor classroom violations, the procedures include a social cognitive problem-solving component that asks the students, in writing, to do the following:
Figure 10.12 Schoolwide code of conduct from the John Fuller Elementary School
Source: Adapted from the Franklin Elementary School-Wide Behavior Management Plan 2006—2007. Retrieved July 26, 2007, from http://schools.beps.org/schools/ces/franklin/pdf/FES=BehaviorM=Manage-ment=Plan
• Describe what happened.
• Describe what the student did.
• Identify which conduct principles were violated.
• Explain the effect on the student and others.
• Specify what needs to happen.
• Articulate the consequences.
• Plan how to prevent the transgression from happening again.
In the second year, to assist students in learning
self-discipline
, a process that involves learning how to exert self-control and manage one’s own behaviors, the teachers established a districtwide behavioral support system in which students have the chance to earn points for good behavior and can exchange the points for the privilege of being a
self-manager
—a role that allows a student to carry out special tasks, such as running errands. As part of the self-manager program, teachers give students a “Caught You” award when they catch a student exemplifying one or more of the behaviors in the code of conduct. The teacher writes a brief description of the positive behavior observed on the “I got caught” sticker, which can be worn by the student or displayed in the classroom or hallway.
During the third year, the teachers developed social skills lessons for classroom instruction and focused on strategies for dealing with the needs of students with chronic behavioral problems. They created crisis-prevention strategies and family-support networks. Educators and administrators are pleased with having a consistent, efficient process that supports both students and teachers.
Working with Professionals in Community Agencies
Special educators work closely with professionals in local and regional community agencies. For example, social workers, mental health counselors, psychologists, and consulting psychiatrists may be involved, along with special educators, occupational therapists, physical therapists, and speech and language pathologists, in delivering services in outpatient mental health treatment centers. Let us take a closer look at how these professionals would work together to help Jake, who is 15 years old.
Snapshot: Jake’s Evaluation and Treatment
Staff at the intensive outpatient mental health treatment center are evaluating Jake while providing crisis stabilization and treatment. This is the third outpatient treatment for Jake, who has episodes of aggressive behavior and has been diagnosed with intermittent explosive disorder. According to DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000, pp. 663–667), this disorder involves discrete episodes in which the individual is unable to resist aggressive impulses that result in serious acts of violence or destruction of property. Jake has a history of violent, aggressive, and oppositional behavior at home. After threatening to hurt his mother with a knife, Jake was referred to the center, and school personnel have been working with Jake’s out-reach social worker and psychiatrist.
As part of Jake’s evaluation, the center is using a
strength-based assessment
. This assessment approach measures skills, achievements, and characteristics that create a sense of personal accomplishment, contribute to satisfying relationships, and help the individual to deal with adversity and stress (Rudolph & Epstein, 2002).
Once Jake’s initial evaluation was completed, a team meeting was arranged. The team consisted of Jake, his mother and grandmother, his primary therapist at the treatment center, a child protective service caseworker, the school counselor, Jake’s best friend, his favorite special educator, and his math teacher.
The team initially focused on how to promote Jake’s strengths. After reviewing Jake’s intrapersonal and academic strengths, team members made several recommendations to support Jake in pursuing his interests, including joining the school’s intramural basketball team, becoming a peer tutor in math, pursuing volunteer work, and structuring free time with peers through participation in supervised community activities.
The team then addressed areas for skill development, including improving interpersonal and affective skills as well as increasing family involvement. The team agreed to work on the affective skills through Jake’s participation in an intensive anger-management program for youth and their families. Jake also agreed to meet with the school counselor to discuss difficulties he may be having with peers and to establish concrete goals in an effort to increase his understanding of the consequences of his actions.
The team planned to provide support to Jake’s mother in developing behavior support, problem solving, and communication skills through in-home Family Preservation Services, a division of the state’s department of mental health. Jake’s family agreed to plan a meal together at least three times per week and hold meetings at least once a week to build family communication (adapted from Rudolph & Epstein, 2002).
Tapping Community Mentors
A valuable resource for educators is the development of community mentors who can be linked with students. A mentor is typically an older, established member of the business community or a retired person who makes a commitment to be a young person’s guide over a period of time (Waller, 2002). The mentor can be a continuous presence in the student’s life, “seeing potential, challenging, encouraging, demonstrating, as well as providing resources and access” (p. 14).
What the Research Says About Community Mentoring
In Hawaii, the Wai‘anae High School Hawaiian Studies Program (Yamauchi, 2003) serves native Hawaiian students in a predominantly low-income community. The program consists of four core elements:
• Contextualization of instruction within students’ home and school backgrounds
• Joint productive activity between teachers, students, and community mentors
• “Detracking” of students
• Teaming and looping of teachers
Research to Practice
Dropout Prevention
Students with mild and moderate disabilities are at high risk for dropping out of school before high school graduation. To address this concern, educators have examined ways of reaching students with disabilities at the middle school level. Research on these dropout-prevention programs shows promising results (Christenson, Sinclair, Evelo, & Thurlow, 1995; Edgar & Johnson, 1995; Thornton, 1995).
Some successful prevention programs target specific groups of students. For example, the Achievement for Latinos through Academic Success (ALAS) program is an effective research-based dropout-prevention program for high-risk Mexican youth, including those with disabilities, who live in high-poverty urban neighborhoods (What Works Clearing-house, 2006). Somers and Piliawsky (2004) describe a prevention program targeted to urban African American adolescents. A major finding was that students appeared to benefit from working with adults who cared about their success.
The Belief Academy (Edgar, Parker, Siegel, & Johnson, 1994) emphasizes accelerated acquisition of basic skills. The program also provides social support and family case management to address out-of-school issues that affect learning (medical care, housing, family counseling). Both this and the ALAS program include the following components: maintaining persistent, long-term contact with students; adapting school rules; establishing discipline procedures and policies for students; and facilitating student participation in school-sponsored activities.
Questions for Reflection
1. What are some other ways schools are working on dropout prevention?
2. What are the current statistics on school dropouts among students with and without disabilities?
Instruction is community based and focuses on weekly fieldwork within the community with teachers and community mentors. During their fieldwork, students learn from their teachers and community mentors about concepts that are valued in the community. For example, taking care of the land through archaeological and environmental projects is consistent with the traditional Hawaiian value m~;lama i ka ‘m~;ina (p. 384).
According to the research, Hawaiian students’ grades improve the longer they remain in the program, and they are less likely to drop out of school. These students think more about career and postsecondary education than students not enrolled in the program. Finally, the students report that they feel more connected to their school and community.
Students with and without disabilities learn about their community through field-based research.
Collaborating with Families
Educators can draw on natural mentors, too. Mentoring is a long-established aspect of many families. Siblings, parents, grandparents, and aunts and uncles may have provided a support system since the student was a young child. In some cultures, such as among the Navajos of the southwestern United States, people believe that mentoring is a birthright, and each person is expected to fulfill individual responsibilities to relatives.
Snapshot: Uncle Teles
Among the Dine (Navajo) people, the maternal uncle mentors his sisters’ children. In many families, his responsibilities include shepherding his nieces and nephews through their education. Teles, for example, is a young attorney and a college professor in a large metropolitan area in the Southwest, several hours’ drive from his tribal home on the Navajo reservation. Since his six nieces have been in grade school, Teles has inspired them to set goals and achieve in school. He challenges them and provides them with both emotional and material support as they progress through each phase of their educational development. Guided by Teles, the three oldest girls graduated from their border town (the town adjacent to the reservation) high school a year early and subsequently moved to the city where Teles lives. Currently, four of his nieces, one of whom has an infant, live with Teles in his home in the city. Heather, an eighth grader, is continuing her education via home schooling as she undergoes her second round of chemotherapy for bone cancer (adapted from Waller, 2002, p. 14).
Summary
• Students with problem behaviors do not fit into any one category; rather, they exhibit a wide variety of behaviors, from extremely aggressive and oppositional to extremely withdrawn and anxious.
• To assess student needs, educators use a functional behavioral assessment.
• Planning and implementing instruction involves understanding what motivates behavior and using a behavioral intervention plan that specifies the skills or replacement behaviors that the student needs.
• Educators help strengthen school and community capacity by using schoolwide behavior support systems, collaborating with families, and working with other professionals in community agencies.
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
Describe various theories regarding how students learn.
Compare and contrast two or more research-based teaching methods.
Discuss how educators might use learning or social networks to facilitate teaching and learning.
Educators implement instruction in a variety of ways, referred to as teaching methods. A
teaching method
is a broad approach based on theory, research, educational preparation, experiences, and/or philosophy. Sometimes referred to as an instructional method, a teaching method consists of a general plan that teachers follow to introduce new material, assist student learning, and provide feedback to students regarding their achievement. Some methods emphasize a teacher-centered, structured approach to delivering instruction and high levels of student responses, whereas other methods focus on the importance of working and learning with peers or expert learners and mentors. Unfortunately, there is no simple answer as to which method is best for students with disabilities. In this chapter, we explore the characteristics of several contemporary methods for teaching and examine the research findings related to students with disabilities. Before doing so, though, we begin by looking at various theories of learning.
is the change in what students are capable of doing as the result of formal and informal experiences (
Cruickshank, Jenkins, & Metcalf, 2005
;
Parsons, Hinson, & Sardo-Brown, 2001
). Through these experiences, such as teacher-planned lessons and instructional activities, students learn new skills, acquire new knowledge, and develop deeper understandings. Teachers plan and implement learning activities using one or more instructional methods, supported by theories of learning. We explore several of these contemporary theories that form the basis for methods of instruction. The major theories of learning include cognitive, behavioral, and social learning. Each theory views the student and the teacher through a slightly different lens, and each emphasizes different factors believed to be critical for learning to occur.
Cognitive theories address how students think, process information, and remember (
Ausubel, 1968
; Ausubul, 2000;
Bruner,
1966
;
Byrnes, 2000
;
Farnham-Diggory, 1992
;
Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 2001
;
Gagne, Wager, Golas, & Keller, 2004
;
Purcell-Gates, Jacobson, & Degener, 2004
). They focus on the role of information processing, or how the learner takes in knowledge, stores it, and retrieves information. Thus retaining information in both short-term and long-term memory is an important component of cognitive theories.
Short-term memory
is memory that holds information temporarily. Individuals can keep information active in short-term memory by using various learning strategies, such as creating a mnemonic, a word or phrase that helps the individual to remember a set of steps or a series of words. The teacher’s role is to enable students to learn by organizing and structuring new information. For example, to show a student how to use a mnemonic, the teacher chunks information by grouping individual bits of information in a meaningful way.
Chapter 8
gives further information about similar strategies that educators use to help students.
Long-term memory
is memory in which information is permanently stored. Cognitive theorists such as David Ausubel describe how teachers can promote classroom learning and enhance long-term memory. We discuss the following cognitive theories:
1. Ausubel’s cognitive theory
2. Constructivism
3. Metacognition
4. Multiple intelligences
Ausubel believes that teachers promote learning by planning well-organized, structured lessons and activities that selectively link new information to familiar information. At the beginning of each class, the teacher presents lesson objectives to students so that they know what they will learn and do as a result of the lesson. This teacher-directed instruction proceeds from general topics to specific ones and from familiar to new information.
Similar to Ausubel’s cognitive theory,
constructivism
(
Fosnot, 2005
;
Marlowe & Page, 2005
; Pass, 2004) views learning as a process in which students create new knowledge by building on their own past experiences and constructing knowledge as they interact with their teachers and peers. However, the constructivist approach focuses on student-centered activities rather than on more structured, teacher-directed lessons and activities.
Morgan Lindstrom, an elementary special educator, works with a fourth-grade teacher in planning to introduce a new science unit on energy and heat. They want the children to make discoveries and generate ideas that they can prove—or disprove—during class time. Morgan and her colleague decide to ask the students to consider the question, What are the characteristics of heat? During the beginning class discussions, they encourage students to draw on their past experiences to help formulate the answer. Students mention that a stove, an oven, a microwave, and a radiator give off heat. Then someone says that heat comes from coats and mittens. When the other children agree, the teachers decide to put aside other activities and help the children construct an experiment, observe the results, and correct the misconception. They begin by wrapping several thermometers in a coat and mittens. When the temperature does not rise, they discuss the findings and brainstorm ideas. They decide to seal the thermometers and clothing in plastic bags and continue to collect data. The class analyzes the results and brainstorms possible reasons for their findings. When there is still no change in the temperature, the teacher facilitates student discussions by writing down key concepts and drawing a picture to illustrate them. By organizing the class discussion in this way, the teachers help the students draw the conclusion that clothing merely holds the heat in when someone wears it. Through this unit, they hope that students will develop a better understanding of energy (adapted from
Watson & Konicek, 1990
).
Metacognition
involves learning how to learn and think. Flavell, Miller, and Miller (2001) define three types of metacognitive knowledge. First, learners hold beliefs about themselves as learners. For example, a student believes that listening to music is helpful when studying. Second, a learner has task knowledge, or an understanding of procedures that must be followed to complete a task. In mathematics, this type of knowledge is important when completing operations (for example, to add two different fractions, write the fractions with a common denominator). Third, a learner has strategic knowledge, or an understanding of selecting and using various approaches to solving a problem. In mathematics, strategic knowledge helps the student know how to begin to solve a word problem.
Students with disabilities often have difficulties because they do not know how to learn, solve problems, or complete assignments, even though they have the facts and information. They do not readily achieve proficiency in problem solving and higher order thinking skills, which are characteristics of successful learners. Many educators feel that these
metacognitive skills
should be taught along with the curriculum. Others believe that selected thinking skills should be integrated within the curriculum.
We continue our visit with Morgan Lindstrom and her work outside the fourth-grade classroom. She explains, “Sometimes I work individually or with small groups of students to help them gain a better understanding of some of the upcoming learning activities in which they will be participating. Take, for example, the science lesson that we just completed on energy and heat. Several of the students with learning disabilities and ADHD in this classroom have difficulty in following the problem-solving approach to science. Last week, I worked with these students to help prepare them for their classroom work. First I presented a similar problem. We then talked through the steps that we could take to solve it. Teaching students how to go about solving a problem gives them some strategic knowledge. They bring this to their work in the general education classroom, helping them to be more successful.”
Some contemporary psychologists (
Armstrong, 2000
;
Gardner, 1983
, 2006) have written that multiple intelligences (MI) play a critical role in learning. Howard Gardner developed a complex theory of MI and described each intelligence, such as linguistic intelligence, musical intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence, naturalist intelligence, and possibly others.
Gardner theorized that each intelligence is relatively independent of the others but that frequently more than one intelligence is involved during the learning process. For example, a learner first observes and then imitates the actions performed by the teacher in learning a new skill. According to MI theory, a learner can use spatial, bodily, and interpersonal intelligences. Linguistic intelligence may be involved to a minor degree (if at all). By contrast, when the teacher presents new information during a classroom lecture, the learner needs to use mostly linguistic knowledge and some bodily-kinesthetic knowledge in note taking.
The last refrain of a rap song lingers in the air as the children complete the final dance step. Someone asks if they can do a repeat performance. Tina asks the teacher assistant to take over so that she can explain what is going on. “I base a lot of my teaching on the theory of multiple intelligences. Many of my students love music, especially some of the rap by Johnny and the Kids, a popular rap group of 8-year-olds. We make up our own rap of the letters and their sounds and add some body movement. Usually we do a couple of songs as a warm-up activity before choosing a book to read. It’s really been amazing to see the children’s interest rise and to see how their music is helping them learn!”
Behavioral theory (
Coleman & Webber, 2002
; Kazdin, 2001;
Skinner, 1974
) examines learning in terms of observable behaviors. Behavioral theorists believe that learning occurs by association. When two events occur together often, they are linked, and learning occurs. For example, when the teacher turns the lights off and asks the students to be quiet, they learn that turning off the lights means that they are to stop talking. After a few times, the teacher should be able to simply turn off the lights to restore quiet.
Theorists believe that reinforcement is the primary mechanism for changing behavior if the type of reinforcement is desired and meaningful. To increase desired student behaviors, educators use a set of rules, or principles of reinforcement (
Walker, She, & Bauer 2006
). The first principle is to reinforce only the target behavior, or the behavior that the student should exhibit, when it occurs. Second, the target behavior is reinforced immediately after it is exhibited. Third, the student receives reinforcement every time the target behavior is exhibited. Finally, as the target behavior becomes more consistent, the student is reinforced only intermittently.
Educators use various types of reinforcement, including consumable, activity-based, manipulative, possessional, and social reinforcement (
Martin & Pear, 2002
). Consumables consist of food that the student likes, such as crackers, fruit, or juice. Activity reinforcers are opportunities to engage in an activity that a student enjoys, such as listening to music, sending an e-mail message, or talking with friends. Manipulative reinforcers include activities that involve drawing, painting, or fixing a machine, for example. Possessional reinforcers include a chance to sit in a desired location, wear a favorite cap, or temporarily use an item that belongs to another. Social reinforcers include verbal praise, a high five, a smile, or a glance that indicates social approval. For reinforcers to be effective, teachers must determine what types of items a student likes or desires. This information can be gathered by asking the student to complete a checklist or talking informally with the student.
Positive reinforcement can be highly effective in helping students change problem behaviors. But unless educators and other school staff use the principles of reinforcement carefully, this intervention can have many pitfalls. Sometimes school staff inadvertently strengthen undesirable behaviors. In fact, many undesirable behaviors are due to the social attention that they evoke from aides, nurses, peers, teachers, parents, doctors, and others (Martin & Pear, 2002, p. 39).
Teachers can have a dramatic effect on the way students with disabilities learn and behave in the classroom by understanding and applying concepts associated with behavior theory through applied behavior analysis.
Applied behavior analysis
is a systematic procedure that involves identifying and describing a behavior in observable terms, assessing the frequency of the behavior, the antecedent conditions, and the consequences following the behavior, developing an intervention(s) designed to change the behavior, and observing and recording data regarding the effect of the intervention.
Lionel Roy, a resource room teacher, uses applied behavior analysis in his work with students with problem behaviors. When a student is experiencing difficulties, Lionel begins by collecting critical information. He looks for antecedent conditions and consequences.
Antecedent conditions
are events, or triggers, in the environment that occur just before the behavior and can be adjusted by the teacher, who carefully observes any changes in student behavior. For example; a student came into class and slumped in his seat, refusing to participate. As Lionel talked with the student, he found out about a confrontation in the hall just before class.
Consequences
are events that occur directly after the behavior and, similar to antecedent events, can be adjusted by the teacher. Both antecedent conditions and consequences directly influence the recurrence of the behavior. As Lionel and the student continued to talk, Lionel learned that another teacher had stepped in to break up the argument, but both students left feeling angry, not having resolved the problem. Lionel quickly realized that, without intervention, this consequence was going to affect the student for the rest of the class period and, perhaps, the rest of the day.
Social and affective perspectives emphasize the importance of social skills, self-awareness, and relationships with others, which in turn affect learning. We discuss two theories associated with these perspectives:
1. Social cognitive theory
2. Emotional intelligence
Social learning theory (
Bandura, 1969
,
1977
,
1986
;
Glasser, 1990
) focuses on how individuals acquire social behaviors and the effects of these behaviors on learning. Teachers can be effective models if they consider four interrelated factors (
Bandura, 1986
). First, the teacher must get the students’ attention. Second, retention of learning occurs when students rehearse or practice learning. Third, students must have opportunities to perform the task. Finally, motivation influences observational learning.
In additional to cognitive abilities, many researchers believe that emotional intelligence plays an important part in learning and in school success.
Emotional intelligence
includes the ability to manage feelings and handle stress, empathy for others, and learned optimism (
Cherniss, 2000
). Emerging research links emotional intelligence and competence to achievement and career success (
Low, Lomax, Jackson, & Nelson, 2004
).
Based on emotional intelligence, Goleman (2001) defines
emotional competence
as a learned capability that results in outstanding performance. Today, more and more schools recognize the strong relationship between social and emotional factors and successful student academic achievement (
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, 2003
;
Payton et al., 2000
; Zinns, Weissberg, Wang, & Wallberg, 2004).
Emotional competence can be viewed as a framework that includes both personal and social competence. Personal competence includes self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-motivation. Social competence includes social awareness and social skills.
Table 7.1
illustrates these areas and describes characteristics of an individual displaying emotional competence.
For all learners, emotional processes affect the cognitive processes. For example, a negative mood can result in missing important details when listening to a group discussion. Educators can enhance their effectiveness by using interventions to improve student social-emotional functioning (
Pellitteri, Dealy, Fasano, & Kugler, 2006
). For example, a teacher carefully monitors the group dynamics and the emotional tone of social interactions as a small group of students engage in small talk during recess. In the past she has had to intervene quickly if a member of the group became aggressive with other students.
Teaching methods based on social and affective perspectives create ways to support peer tutors and opportunities for collaborative teams of students to work together. In fact, group support and cooperation among students are keys to facilitating learning. Students acquire social behaviors by observing and modeling other students. The classroom becomes a learning community that supports each member, and teachers design activities to foster a sense of belonging.
Table 7.1 Emotional Competence
|
Personal Competence |
People with this competence |
||
|
Self-awareness |
→ Know which emotions they are feeling and why → Remain open to new perspectives, continuous learning, and self development → Recognize how their feelings affect their performance |
||
|
Self-regulation |
→ Manage their impulsive feelings → Are organized and careful in their work → Think clearly and stay focused under pressure |
||
|
Self-motivation |
→ Set challenging goals → Recognize setbacks as due to manageable circumstance rather than a personal flaw → Learn how to improve performance |
||
|
Social Awareness |
→ Are attentive to emotional cues and listen well → Show sensitivity and understand others’ perspectives |
||
| Social Skills |
→ Are effective in give and take, registering emotional cues in attuning their message → Listen well, seek mutual understanding → Stay receptive to bad news as well as good |
Adapted from the Emotional Competence Framework. Retrieved June 15, 2007, at the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations Web site:
http://www.eiconsortium.org
Special education consultant Teo Liang encourages the development of class spirit at the beginning of the school year by asking students to develop a class nickname and logo. He encourages them to think about the characteristics of their school and their classroom that make them special. Someone asks about the old foundry nearby, and Liang encourages them to investigate. As the students seek out information, they discover interesting facts and history of the old foundry. Someone creates a graphic of the old building, and the students vote to adopt this as their class logo. Some students volunteer to create a short video that explains their class nickname and logo, and Liang helps them post it to the Web.
Learning how to work together with others, sharing successes, and belonging to a group of peers are lifetime skills that help students to be contributing members in their communities. For students with learning and behavior problems, these skills are essential, yet their disabilities may have interfered with the acquisition of them. Teachers who consider teaching methods based in part on social learning theory believe that they can assist students to acquire collaborative skills in working with others.
We have seen that theories of learning provide a basis for understanding how students learn, including
• the ways that information is stored in memory;
• how students connect new information to information learned previously;
• knowledge of how to learn, or metacognition;
• the role of multiple intelligences;
• the effects of reinforcement;
• the importance of antecedent conditions and consequences;
• the effects of group support and cooperation.
Knowledge and understanding of how students learn provide the basis for one or more methods of instruction.
Figure 7.1
illustrates the learning theories that we have discussed and their connections to various teaching methods discussed in the following section.
Figure 7.1 Learning theories and their relationships to methods of teaching
Figure 7.2
Factors that influence selection of an instructional method
Previous section
Next section
Teachers often select a teaching method compatible with their own professional training, philosophy of education, or theoretical perspectives. Other factors, such as the characteristics of the learners, the classroom curriculum, and the teacher’s experience, also influence the selection of a teaching method (Figure 7.2).
Learning to be an effective teacher also includes developing knowledge of research supporting the method of teaching that the teacher uses. Although a teaching method may appeal intuitively to a teacher, if it does not have a strong research base, there is no assurance that it will be effective for students with disabilities. There are several contemporary teaching methods of interest: direct instruction, explicit or conspicuous instruction, affective instruction, differentiated instruction, and inquiry-based learning.
Direct instruction
is a systematic method that can be used to teach, practice, and reinforce specific skills (
Adams & Engelmann, 1996
;
Carlson & Francis, 2002
;
Kroes-bergen & van Luit, 2003
;
Minskoff & Allsopp, 2003
). Teachers use well-organized and structured lessons and activities to assist students in learning skills or demonstrating certain knowledge. As a teaching method, direct instruction incorporates elements of more than one learning theory (Figure 7.1). In addition to cognitive theories, direct instruction draws from behavioral theory, including the use of reinforcement. Educators use positive comments, high fives, and other types of reinforcement to aid student learning.
Teachers use direct instruction to assist students in learning skills and demonstrating knowledge.
Educators plan direct instruction by determining the sequence of skills in the curriculum area. The curricula and the sets of skills, sometimes referred to as a
scope and sequence
, are frequently part of a school’s curricular guide. Criterion-referenced assessments are good resources, too, because they provide a broad range of curricula and sequences of skills within curricular areas such as reading, mathematics, spelling, and writing. To assess student knowledge and weaknesses in one or more areas of the curriculum, special educators frequently use curriculum-based and criterion-referenced assessments. They analyze assessment information to determine how much students have mastered and what they do not know within the sequence of skills. This is the point at which they design and implement instruction.
When a teacher knows what students can and cannot do, he or she focuses on helping each one to succeed by offering instruction in a systematic, organized fashion (
Figure 7.3
). Direct instruction, sometimes referred to as mastery learning, can be used in general education classrooms and settings where students receive special education services.
Using the direct instruction method, a teacher tells students what they will be learning, the reasons for each lesson, and how these reasons relate to previous lessons. All students use the same materials and are involved in the same activity. The teacher serves as the principal source of information.
Figure 7.3 Characteristics of direct instruction
Because the purpose of direct instruction is to teach the students specific material, lessons are highly structured. Teachers may use applied behavior analysis. Applied behavior analysis is a systematic procedure that involves identifying and describing behavior in observable terms; assessing the frequency of the behavior, the antecedent conditions, and the consequences following the behavior; developing an intervention(s) designed to change the behavior; observing; and recording data regarding the effectiveness of the intervention.
Monitoring the effectiveness of direct instruction through data collection is sometimes referred to as precision teaching.
Precision teaching
is a precise and systematic procedure for evaluating instruction. Students are active participants in their progress as they count and chart daily learning.
An additional aspect of direct instruction usually involves teacher-directed discussion, readings, and classroom activities. The teacher checks frequently to make sure that each student is making progress toward the desired outcome. The progress checks provide valuable information and allow the teacher to make adjustments during the lesson if students are having difficulty. The teacher can provide correction and reteach some of the lesson, allot additional instructional time, or suggest extra learning materials. Because students learn at different rates, the teacher also plans enrichment activities. Thus, students who complete their work before other students have an opportunity to deepen and extend their knowledge. When students demonstrate that they have met the learning objectives, the class moves on to the next lesson (
Figure 7.4
).
A teacher spends time after the class reflecting on the lesson. For example, he or she might ask, Were the objectives clear to the students? Was the lesson presented clearly? Did the students have enough time to practice? How could I improve the feedback that I gave to the students? After thinking about the instruction, a teacher may decide to make changes for the following day. Reflection provides a teacher with a way to improve instruction. Reflective teaching is dynamic and powerful.
Many research studies present evidence that direct instruction is effective in helping students with disabilities learn new skills and increase academic achievement across the curriculum. Swanson and Hoskyn (1998) examined 180 research studies that included students with learning disabilities. In synthesizing their findings, they reported that direct instruction was one of the pervasive influences in remediating the academic difficulties of children with learning disabilities. In a second meta-analysis, Swanson (
1999a
;
Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2000
) found that direct instruction and strategy instruction were the most effective techniques for adolescents with learning disabilities and mental retardation.
Figure 7.4 Direct instruction in practice
Similarly, a meta-anaylsis of mathematics instruction (
Kroesbergen & Van Luit, 2003
) found that in 58 studies of mathematics instruction for elementary students with disabilities, direct instruction and self-instruction were found to be the most effective methods. Additional studies describe the benefits of direct instruction on achievement in reading (
Engelmann, 1999
;
Gardill & Jitendra, 1999
;
Spiegel, Vickers, & Viviano, 1999
;
Swanson, 1999b
), mathematics (
Kroesbergen & Van Luit, 2005
;
Maccini, Gagnon, Mulcah, & Leon, 2006
), building social skills (
Bendt & Nunan, 1999
;
Bertone, Boyle, Mitchel, & Smith, 1999
), increasing listening skills (
Engraffia, Graff, Jezuit, & Schall, 1999
), language (
Kroeger, & Nelson, 2006
), and developing skills in language arts such as spelling (
Berninger et al., 1998
) and writing (
Anderson & Keel, 2002
;
Walker, Shippen, Alberto, Houchins, & Cihak, 2006
).
A special educator provides scaffolded instruction during initial learning.
Snapshot: Gabe Cerino’s Classroom
Gabe Cerino, a special educator at an elementary school, invites us to observe a lesson in the resource room. For the next 45 minutes this morning he will be working with Juan, a first grader. One of Juan’s IEP goals is to increase reading comprehension. To plan and monitor his specially designed instruction in reading, he uses a chart that lists the skills in developing phonemic awareness. Gabe keeps a daily check sheet of Juan’s progress.
When Juan comes in, he joins Gabe at the table, and together they look at a short letter that his teacher has written him (
Figure 7.5
). Gabe reads it aloud as Juan follows along. When he comes to a word missing the beginning or ending sound of s, he pauses and Juan writes in the corresponding letter.
After reading the book Gabe has promised, Juan begins work on a set of picture cards. He pronounces the name of each picture and decides which pictures belong in the pile beginning with an s sound. Before going back to his classroom, he completes a drawing of objects beginning with the s sound. Afterward, he and Gabe go over his work together, correcting any errors.
Explicit instruction
includes the systematic procedures of direct instruction and behavior analysis along with the design procedures derived from effective schools research (
Hall, 2006
.) Explicit instruction includes three essential components (
Dimino, 2007
):
1.
Metacognition.
Students know rules, concepts, and strategies. Students understand how to apply a strategy, such as how to identify an unfamiliar word when reading.
Figure 7.5 Juan’s letter
2.
Scaffolded instruction.
Scaffolded instruction consists of three phases: modeling, teacher-assisted or guided practice, and independent phases.
3.
Vocabulary instruction.
Vocabulary instruction includes selecting words that are associated with a specific content area. For example, in preparing a science lesson a teacher develops a definition of precipitation that will be comprehensible to the student. The teacher also plans to provide multiple meaningful exposures to practice the new vocabulary.
Educators often use explicit instruction in the general education classroom to meet the diverse needs of all learners.
What It Looks Like
The teaching team begins with the “big idea” of the unit. This is the content that all students will learn. Primed background knowledge includes the consideration of how the learner can access the information. The team also addresses any special needs of the students. Educators teach conspicuous strategies to students so that they know how to go about learning and problem solving. Knowing one or more of these effective strategies assists students to be more independent learners.
Educators also provide mediated scaffolding, or temporary support and guidance during initial learning. The degree of scaffolding is based on individual learner needs. For example, the teacher shows students how to interpret a graph displayed in the textbook. Together they discuss the meaning of new vocabulary words. The teacher might also develop an outline of the chapter content. Chapter 8 discusses scaffolding.
Educators also use strategic instruction to help students integrate the big ideas and apply their knowledge to other settings.
Strategic instruction
, often used in middle and secondary programs, is an approach that focuses on providing students with rules or guidelines so that they can approach learning activities or assignments more effectively and efficiently and with greater independence.
Finally, judicious review requires educators to identify information that is essential and monitor student progress. Additional activities provide review of the material and contribute to retention.
Figure 7.6
illustrates the components essential to explicit instruction.
Figure 7.6 Explicit instruction in practice
A growing body of research supports the use of explicit instruction as an effective method for teaching students, including students with disabilities. A meta-analysis of spelling interventions conducted by one group of researchers (
Wanzek et al., 2006
) indicated that explicit instruction with multiple practice opportunities and immediate corrective feedback helped students consistently improve spelling. Explicit instruction in decoding and comprehension suggests that at-risk children in early elementary grades can achieve gains in comprehension and early reading skills (
Pullen, Lane, Lloyd, Nowak, & Ryals, 2005
; Willimas, 2005). Explicit instruction in mathematics increased student problem-solving abilities (
Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, & Appleton, 2002
). Further, when explicit instruction is combined with concrete to representational to abstract (CRA) in teaching algebra, Witzel (2005) found an increase in student achievement. For social studies instruction, Williams and her colleagues (
Williams et al., 2007
) found that explicit instruction was more effective in learning social studies content than instruction that did not include explicit instruction.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
Research-Based Teaching Methods and Latino Students
What teaching methods work best for newcomer students, or students who have recently arrived in this country, and students from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds? In an extensive review of the research concerning Latino students, Fashola, Slavin, Claderón, and Durán (2002) found a number of replicable programs for elementary and middle schools that are proven to meet the needs of these students. These programs include the instructional methods that we discuss in this chapter, such as explicit and direct instruction, and a very effective instructional strategy, cooperative learning, that we discuss in Chapter 8. Success for All, a program that uses cooperative learning, one-to-one tutoring for students who have difficulties, and family support to build positive home-school relations, shows very positive results, too. Latino students who participated in the program made substantial gains on standardized tests, compared to Latino students who did not participate (
Fashola et al., 2002
). Yet Fashola et al. also found large gaps in the knowledge base concerning the teaching of reading and language arts, particularly in approaches designed for Latino or English language learners.
A research team led by Vaughn and her colleagues (
Vaughn et al., 2006
) compared the effectiveness of an explicit reading instruction for first-grade students whose home language was Spanish and who were at risk for reading difficulties with a group of comparison students who participated in the school’s standard instruction for at-risk students. This study found that children who participated in explicit instruction obtained significantly higher scores in phonological awareness, letter-sound identification, word attach, reading fluency, and comprehension.
Questions for Reflection
1. What teaching methods do educators in other countries use?
2. What Web-based resources might a first-year teacher find helpful for designing instruction?
Perhaps as a result of the increase in social problems, such as bullying behaviors, depression, substance abuse, and violent acts of students against other students and teachers, there is much interest in affective instruction. Based on social learning theory and much of the work of Maslow (1999) and Rogers and Freiberg (1994),
affective instruction
focuses on personal and social learning as well as the academic development of each student. Educators use different terms to describe one or more areas of affective education, including social and emotional learning (
Elias et al., 1997
) character education (
Lickona, 1997
), moral education (
Gilligan, 1993
;
Noddings, 2005
), multicultural education (
Banks & Banks, 2003
), and values education (
Huitt, 2003
). Additionally, some educators use specific curricula to promote personal development such as social skills training.
What It Looks Like
Affective instruction begins with careful thought and preparation regarding both the physical classroom and the learning environment (
Figure 7.7
). The teacher nurtures feelings of self-respect among the students as well as respect and acceptance of others. By planning learning activities that offer a degree of student choice, the educator assists students in developing a feeling of control over their work. Instruction includes both academic and personal/social development. For example, the teacher may stress the importance of skills he or she wants to see a student display in working with a partner. The teacher supports learning by using active listening and paraphrasing student comments or ideas. Visitors quickly observe that the teacher places a high value on citizenship and respect for others.
Chapters 9
and 10 look more closely at ways educators help students develop and enhance social skills and positive behaviors.
Figure 7.7 Affective instruction in practice
Muscott and O’Brien (1999) examined an after-school program for 19 elementary students with emotional or behavioral disorders. Instruction focused on one area of affective instruction called character education and the use of high school and college mentors. Through a series of interviews, the students reported that they learned to accept the responsibilities for their actions, that they made new friends, and that they responded to the ideas of cooperation and teamwork.
Another study (
De Cuyper, Timbremont, Braet, De Backer, & Wullaert, 2004
) reports findings in working with children with symptoms of moderate depression. Twenty children between the ages of 10 and 12 participated in 18 sessions of affective instruction. At the end of this period, the researchers found that both children and parents reported significant improvements.
Improvements were also noted for 15 children with autism (ages 8–17 years old) who participated in a 7-month intervention program that focused on teaching interpersonal problem solving, affective knowledge, and social interaction. The researcher (
Bauminger, 2002
) found that children were more likely to initiate positive social interaction with peers, including sharing experiences with peers and showing more interest in peers.
Snapshot: Ben Schultz’s Classroom
Ben Schultz sits on the edge of the desk, watching as students gather around two boys circling each other with threatening fists. Someone shouts, “Go for it.” The crowd of students begins to surge closer to the two students. Watching the monitor across from Ben, we can see a close up as the camera zeros in on one of the students in the background. “Cut.” Ben jumps up and provides suggestions to the young actors.
Later we learn that this class has been studying school citizenship and how to address the problems of bullying in their building. As a culminating project, the class is creating a series of videoclips with typical scenarios that many of the students have faced. Later they will use these videoclips as discussion starters as they visit other classes to help students find alternative ways to address common concerns. Although this project focused on affective skills and the use of problem solving as the students developed the story lines, Ben found that the students also demonstrated increased interest in planning and writing as they developed the scenario scripts.
We learn that this is the first of many projects the students will complete over the school year. Ben believes that combining affective and academic education is very helpful to his students. The students report that one of the most important aspects of this class is the teacher’s ongoing availability to students. They are quick to talk about the respect that their teacher shows for each student and how they, in turn, respect him.
Designed for the general education classroom,
differentiated instruction
is an inclusive approach for working with all students. Tomlinson (2001) identifies three assumptions underlying differentiated instruction. First, within any classroom, there is a wide range of learners. Second, there is no substitute for high-quality curriculum and instruction. Third, even with high-quality curriculum and instruction, effective educators must build bridges between the learner and learning. Teacher-student relationships are essential, and they take time to develop
.
Figure 7.8
Differentiated instruction
Source: Adapted from “Differentiated Instruction: Inclusive Strategies that Benefit the Whole Class,” by D.
Lawrence-Brown, 2004
, American Secondary Education, 32(3), pp. 34–62. Adapted with permission.
An educator planning for differentiated instruction tries to maximize student attainment of grade-level curriculum standards (Lawrence-Brown, 2004). Planning differentiated instruction often begins with the concept of universal design.
Universal design
in education means that physical, social, and learning environments are designed so that individuals with a wide range of abilities can have meaningful access to and participation in general education. Universal design in education involves flexibility of materials, strategies, approaches, and technology. It can guide teachers as they work to make their teaching and learning activities appropriate and accessible to a wide range of learners.
Figure 7.8 illustrates the components of a differentiated classroom. Providing supports is an important strategy for helping some students to obtain grade-level proficiency. For these students with mild to moderate disabilities, grade-level standards are obtainable but very challenging (Lawrence-Brown, 2004). Supports include various types of materials, such as manipulatives, visual aids, charts, outlines, or assistive technology such as text-to-speech software to allow students to listen to textbooks. Additional supports may also include personal assistance such as peer tutoring or help from a teacher assistant. The teacher will use a variety of instructional strategies, such as a handout on the key concepts of the unit or a list of the new vocabulary terms. The teacher will help students make connections between prior knowledge and new learning.
Supports are also important so students with severe disabilities can follow alternative achievement standards or a prioritized curriculum. These supports enable a student to participate in the general education curriculum while following the IEP, which has different curriculum goals. These goals are accomplished within the context of large-group activities (Lawrence-Brown, 2004, p. 48).
Figure 7.9
Differentiated instruction in practice
Students with gifts and talents engage in an enriched curriculum. This curriculum allows students to explore concepts and ideas that are not typically covered in the classroom. Students have opportunities for completing challenging and creative projects and sharing their work with their classmates. Figure 7.9 illustrates these components of differentiated instruction in practice.
Hawkins (2007) reports a longitudinal study of 100 public schools in Rhode Island that demonstrated significant improvement on achievement test scores between subgroups of students with IEPs and students without IEPs. This study focuses on improvements in either language arts or mathematics. School staff were asked to identify effective practices that contributed to the rise in student test scores. Among the practices identified were the use of differentiated instruction, small-group instruction, manipulatives, teacher read-alouds, and collaborative teaching models, among other practices. Additional research should lend further support to the use of differentiated instruction.
Snapshot: Jan Browski’s Classroom
Jan Browski greets us enthusiastically outside one of the eighth-grade classrooms. “Come on into our classroom! The students are anxious to show you our semester-long project, called ‘Exploring Our Town.’ Basically, the classroom teaching focuses on giving students the general skills that they need while working on the project. For example, a few weeks ago the students heard that a local construction company was going to build a new bridge over Temple Stream. We had heard that the Passamoquoddy Indians had camped near the stream in that area many years ago. As we talked, the students wondered about the history of the area and what would be lost as a result of the construction. They decided to conduct interviews with some of the tribe elders still living in the area. In the classroom, we discussed how to develop an interview and collect the data. Two of the students had some experience in developing interview questions, and they became our peer tutors for this aspect of the project. They each worked with small groups of students to help them refine their questions.
“You’ll see the students working in a 2-hour block of time today. Will Engart, the teacher assistant, is going to be working with one of the smaller groups. The students were assigned a small booklet to read. Some of the students read the historical account and others listened to a copy that was scanned in to the computer.”
As we sit in on the group discussion, we hear students asking
What viewpoint is this written from?
How do we know this?
How is this connected to what we learned in our interviews with the tribe elders?
Will leads the students in thinking about their interpretations. Students with strong higher order thinking skills are modeling various ways of connecting the information. Other learners have ample opportunities to observe, listen, and participate in the discussion. We leave the classroom realizing that differentiated instruction has enabled all students to deepen their understanding of preservation issues faced by this community.
Inquiry-based learning
relies on the teacher to create experiences from which students derive their own knowledge and meaning. Jerome Bruner (1966) believed that inquiry-based learning helps students take responsibility for their own learning and remember important information. Inquiry-based learning, sometimes referred to as discovery learning, or problem solving, is built on the theory of constructivism. Elements of social cognitive theory, such as group work and cooperation among students, play a role in inquiry-based learning. But organization of student activities should not be the only principle; inquiry is also characterized by the teacher’s mode of participation (
Wells, 2000
).
What It Looks Like
The teacher begins by planning a broad purpose, or goal, and helping students generate their own questions and topics. The teacher gathers information about the topics and makes sure that students have access to needed resources. Inquiry-based learning uses objects and ideas that encourage students to manipulate and compare. The teacher provides questions to capture students’ attention and encourage higher order thinking or ways of knowing that were discussed in Chapter 6. Students are encouraged to make guesses based on available information and to find ways of solving problems. The teacher acts as a guide, providing basic information and encouraging students to determine the best way to organize new and familiar information, but is careful not to provide guidance that would interfere with self-direction and discovery (
Figure 7.10
). General educators often use inquiry-based learning in the general education classroom in the belief that students learn best through active involvement.
Science
educators, for example, emphasize doing science by focusing on the following student activities: designing experiments, predicting results, manipulating materials, recording observations, and summarizing findings. These activities are quite different from other teaching methods, such as a more direct instruction approach in which the educator performs the experiment while students watch and then discuss the results.
Research to Practice
Teaching Methods and Specific Content Focus
Some teaching methods specific to a curriculum area also have a wide research base that demonstrates their effectiveness for students with disabilities.
An example of a curriculum-specific teaching method is MathWings (
Madden, Slavin, & Simons, 2002
), tied to the national mathematics standards developed by the National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics
. MathWings involves students in problem solving in real situations using cooperative groups and literature, science, art, and other subjects as well as the students’ personal experiences. Students are encouraged to use calculators for developing mathematical concepts, explain and defend their solutions orally, and write regularly in their individual logbooks. Research studies indicate that students involved in MathWings, including students in poverty, made substantial gains in mathematical achievement.
Special educators use supported inquiry-based learning to encourage inductive thinking.
Figure 7.10 Supported inquiry-based learning in practice
Source: Adapted from “Supported Inquiry Science: Teaching for Conceptual Change in Urban and Suburban Science Classrooms,” by
B. Dalton and C. C. Morocco, 1997
, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30(6), pp. 670–685. Adapted with permission.
Students are required to use inductive thinking in many inquiry-based activities. Inductive thinking requires students to consider their observations and then develop a general rule based on their findings or discoveries. Thus, the students “construct” knowledge as a result of their own observations and thinking.
Because students with mild and moderate disabilities often have difficulty with inductive thinking (
Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1997
), special educators often support them through the use of prompted coaching and supported inquiry methods. In the following dialogue (adapted from Mastropieri & Scruggs), notice how the teacher uses questioning during prompted coaching to help a student with a disability to draw inferences:
|
Educator: |
Anteaters have long claws on their front feet. Why does this make sense? |
||||||||||
|
Student: |
I don’t know. |
||||||||||
|
Well, let’s think. What do you know about anteaters? For example, what do they eat? |
|||||||||||
|
Anteaters eat ants. |
|||||||||||
|
Good. And where do ants live? |
|||||||||||
|
They live in holes in the ground. |
|||||||||||
|
Now, if anteaters eat ants and ants live in holes in the ground, why do you think that anteaters have long claws on their front feet? |
|||||||||||
|
To dig for ants. |
|||||||||||
|
Good. To dig for ants. |
Sometimes in supported inquiry-based learning, the educator provides the general rule to the students first. Then students are prompted and questioned to apply the rule (
Woodward & Noell, 1992
). Educators also embed assessment in instruction, including performance tasks as well as questions that students respond to in drawing and writing (
Dalton & Morocco, 1997
).
Research studies supporting the benefits of inquiry-based learning have focused on the importance of insight and discovery to learning (
Parsons et al., 2001
). Students report that inquiry-based learning is enjoyable (
Algava, 1999
;
Romeo & Young, 1997
). Teachers using an inquiry-based, hands-on science curriculum have found that students with learning disabilities learn and comprehend more information than students taught from textbooks (
Scruggs, Mastropieri, Bakken, & Brigham, 1993
). Research findings suggest that coaching students with learning disabilities to draw inferences regarding science principles results in higher levels of recall and understanding (
Palincsar, Magnusson, Collins, & Cutter, 2001
) and that supported inquiry is more effective than an activity-based science approach alone (Dalton & Morocco, 1997;
Sasaki & Serna, 1995
). Use of inquiry with Web-based activities is an effective practice in inclusive biology classes (
Bodzin, Waller, Santoro, & Kale, 2007
). These studies are part of a small, but growing, body of research that focuses on inquiry-based learning and higher order thinking.
Snapshot: Kayla Hennesey’s Classroom
Kayla Hennesey, a special educator in a small K–8 community school, has invited us to join her and her students for the day. One of the first things we see when entering her resource room is a large glass terrarium on a table. Several students are gathered around the table this morning, some with handhelds (such as PDAs) and others with notebooks. The students are using these to record their daily observations. As we move closer, we see a cocoon hanging from a branch. On the table is a variety of magnifying glasses. The students are following the life cycle of two caterpillars they found earlier. Each week they record their observations and take a digital picture to add to the class Web site.
Kayla introduced the unit by leading a discussion about two different caterpillars she had brought to class. Most of the students knew that caterpillars metamorphosed into butterflies. But the teacher continued to probe, hoping that the additional questions she posed would create interest among the students. Do you think that all caterpillars have the same life cycle? What kinds of butterflies will metamorphose from these caterpillars? The students were hooked! Can we find out? Once the students had accepted the challenge, Kayla helped them decide how to conduct their observations and collect their data. She provided multiple ways, including both text and digital formats, for drawing or sketching and recording their observations. Working with the school librarian, she located resource books at different reading levels and identified community resource people with whom students could discuss their ideas.
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In considering ways of teaching, tablets and laptops provide exciting possibilities for enhancing teaching and learning activities because each student can access an enormous amount of information from a desktop or small-group work area. These technology tools enable students to develop skills in working with others and to enhance self-esteem and self-sufficiency while working on content knowledge. Students also can use software to help them organize their school schedules and assignments as well as other aspects of their daily lives. Technology tools, such as text-to-speech software or word prediction, may allow some students with disabilities to access and use information more efficiently and more accurately than traditional materials.
However, for some students with disabilities, using tablets and laptops may create major problems. Some students may not be able to see text on the screen, either because it is too small or because they are not able to read text written at a specific level. Laptops and tablets may not be compatible with specialized software that students with disabilities need to access text information or they may not support the use of voice input as a keyboard alternative. For students who have difficulty in keyboarding or who are not physically able to use a keyboard, accessing the computer directly using speech-recognition software allows them to find and use information. For students with fine motor difficulties, the reduced keyboard size of some laptops, buttons on tablets, and minikeyboards or thumb keyboards may be too small or too complicated or may require too high a degree of fine motor control to operate. Here are some questions to consider: What are some of the difficulties that the keyboard or screen might present to a student with a disability? What are some advantages to using a tablet? How easy or difficult is it to learn to use one? What problems might this tool present to a student with a disability?
IN PRACTICE
As we learned earlier in this chapter, a method consists of a general plan that the teacher follows to introduce new material, assist student learning, and provide feedback to students regarding their achievement. Educators typically select and use teaching methods with which they are most familiar. Often an individual teacher’s selection of a method is based on earlier training and experiences provided by experienced mentors.
Selection of a teaching method also should be based on research findings. The teacher should ask which methods are most effective for students with disabilities.
Classroom Focus
Sean Bellaire, a high school special educator, and Mary Wallace, a high school social studies teacher, meet twice a week to plan daily lessons. Today they are starting a new unit, and together they decide that Sean should begin the class by discussing a general topic, familiar to the students, and then move to the specific topic of today’s lesson.
Working Toward Solutions
As students settle into their seats, Sean asks, “How many of you have ever moved to a new neighborhood or a new community?” He encourages students to share their experiences, sometimes probing with questions such as, How did you prepare for the move? and How long did it take to get settled? After students have a chance to share their experiences, Sean and Mary introduce the new unit, the Western Movement. Each student receives a handout with a graphic that represents the overall unit and an outline of the material to be covered today. Several new vocabulary words, such as Donner Pass, are included on the handout.
After previewing what they will be covering for today, Mary uses her laptop and a data projector to display the outline with key concepts on the screen while she presents the information orally. She also encourages students to participate in the lively discussion concerning the new information. During this time, Sean assists several students to record notes on the outline handout. Next the teachers pass out a written follow-up activity for each student to complete. At the end of class, Mary provides a brief review of what they covered and answers any questions about an upcoming assignment. For a student with a mild to moderate disability, a method of instruction that is well organized and structured helps in learning new information.
What the Research Says
Probably no other teaching method has such a wide research base as direct instruction. Numerous research studies focus on the effectiveness of direct instruction for students with learning disabilities, behavior disorders, mild to moderate mental retardation, and autism. In fact, the effectiveness of direct instruction is not restricted to a particular disability, age group, or skills area (
White, 1988
).
Direct instruction is one of the most effective classroom interventions. In a review of 24 meta-analyses concerning various types of intervention used with students with disabilities, Forness (2001) found that direct instruction, mnemonic strategies, reading-comprehension strategies, and behavior modification were the most effective methods.
MyEducationLab: Your Turn
Learn more about how teachers use direct instruction—go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Instructional Practices and Learning Strategies. Then watch the video entitled “Reading: Direct Instruction.” Compare and contrast how the teachers in the preceding scenario and the teacher in the video used direct instruction. Be prepared to discuss your ideas with members of the class.
What will teaching and learning look like in your classroom? Emerging concepts in the field of education as well as new technologies present innovative ways of teaching and learning. As you read the following section, envision how you might employ one or more of these concepts or technology tools in your future classroom. Do you think teaching and learning would be more effective?
Technology offers new windows of opportunity for creating learning networks among students. Learning portals that provide a single point of access, coupled with wireless and mobile technologies such as laptops and cell phones, allow students to connect with others in the classroom and in classrooms across the world to collect data, solve problems, and create products. Moreover, these technologies offer multiple formats for learning. Students download multimedia content, including text, graphics, animations, video or audio clips. For many students, being “plugged in” is not only motivating but also helps make learning fun.
For other students, networks provide opportunities for using new skills. Today students build social networks beyond physical neighborhoods and communicate regularly with individuals with whom them have common interests but have never met face to face. Educators can build social networks for students to introduce and practice social skills by working with others or role playing in virtual worlds. Participating in social networks, though, demands an understanding of certain protocols for participation and a foundation of learning how to play safely.
In a synchronous learning or social environments, the students or the instructor and the students communicate in real time. However, asynchronous environments operate continuously, and learners come during times that are convenient.
Synchronous learning allows teachers to provide immediate feedback and correct student misunderstandings. Technology tools that may support this environment include student-controlled clickers to participate in whole-class quizzes, voice and video conferencing with experts across the country, text messaging with other students across the globe, and live Web quests.
Asynchronous learning allows teachers to extend learning beyond the classroom in an interactive way, providing students opportunities to think more deeply about their activities and then participate in threaded discussions, create blogs, or produce materials to post to a Web-based bulletin board. Podcasts allow students to listen to material once or multiple times, if needed.
Future learning networks may provide a variety of environments, using the best features of each. In class, seat time may be augmented by small-group activities in a synchronous environment; later, students may post ideas and drafts of work in an asynchronous environment. The 21st century is truly a time of emerging concepts, technologies, and new ideas for learning networks!
Snapshot: Piper Armstrong’s Mentorship Program
Piper recently graduated from the state university with a major in biology and coursework in special education. In her first year of teaching at Randall High, she is participating in an interesting mentorship program. She explains that this online mentoring project, called Electronic Mentoring for Student Success (eMSS), matches new teachers (first or second year of teaching middle or high school science) with an experienced science teacher from another school district who teaches in the same content area. The mentoring takes place online and is focused on content and pedagogy. Scientists from the University of California and Montana State University also participate to provide content support when needed or share their research activities. Discussion areas are provided for earth, space, life, and physical science, and several modules are designed to explore different aspects of science teaching between mentors and mentees (
eMSS, 2006
).
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Summary
• Based on learning theory and research in the field, an effective teaching method provides a general plan that the teacher follows in introducing material, assisting student learning, and providing feedback to students regarding their achievement.
• Theories of learning offer different perspectives on how students learn and provide a framework for teaching methods.
• An integral part of any teaching method should include planning and developing ways to welcome all students in the classroom. Educators must work to create opportunities for students to learn about and celebrate the unique characteristics of people in their communities, building respect for and acceptance of others.
• Some research suggests that particular teaching methods better meet the needs of Latino students than other methods. Much additional research is needed for teaching of students whose second or third language is English and for newcomer students with disabilities.
• Web-based technologies, such as social and learning networks hold much promise for all students, including students with disabilities.
• As new devices and concepts emerge, educators may need to play many roles, such as teacher, advocate, investigator, and leader to uphold the right to information access for all students.
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
Discuss planning classroom environments to positively affect learning.
Describe how special educators and other team members develop individualized education programs.
Discuss the process of planning and organizing instruction.
Students with and without disabilities are expected to acquire knowledge and skills across all areas of the school curriculum. In fact, IDEA states that students with disabilities must have access to the general education curriculum. Today, special educators must be familiar with the general education curriculum as well as with specialized teaching methods and instructional strategies for students with disabilities. They may join general educators as part of a teaching team, or they may work alone or with other special educators to plan, organize, and implement instruction.
To begin, educators ask questions about the students with whom they will be teaching. What do Tony, Tasha, and Juanita know? In planning and organizing instruction, special educators begin by assessing the academic needs of students with disabilities in the various content areas, such as literacy (including reading and writing), mathematics, science, and social studies. Assessment results help educators to determine where to begin planning and implementing instruction. Chapter 5 examined some of the assessment approaches that educators use to link assessment information with instruction. By using assessment information aligned with the general education curriculum, educators can plan and develop learning activities that deepen students’ understanding and strengthen their skills while facilitating work toward high academic achievement.
Special educators also assess student skills and behaviors. They consider prerequisite skills that a student may need, which is critical before planning instruction. For example, the educator conducts a brief probe to assess whether a student is familiar with the meaning of new vocabulary words. Special educators also assess social skills and behaviors. When students need to build appropriate social skills and positive behaviors, educators plan and organize instructional activities to include a social skills component as part of the academic instruction. For example, an educator may plan a lesson in writing that involves working cooperatively with one or more other students to allow a student with a disability to build positive behaviors in working with peers.
If students require accommodations or modifications, educators review the students’ IEPs to determine what accommodations or modifications are described. If students use AT devices, educators consider how they will use the devices during assessment, instruction, and learning activities. Careful planning and organizing of instruction create successful learning opportunities for all students.
Planning and organizing instruction for students with disabilities begins with knowing the characteristics of learners, what they know, and what they can do. Chapters 2 and 3 discussed the characteristics of students, their abilities, and their diverse needs. Chapter 5 discussed the assessment of students to answer questions about their achievement, skills, and behaviors. This chapter discusses how teachers use assessment information to plan instruction and organize learning experiences.
Each classroom consists of various environments—physical, social, and learning—that must be considered in planning instruction. The physical environment consists of the space and furnishings that make up the classroom. The social environment comprises the everyday activities, interactions, and relationships that exist in the classroom and their impact on learning. The learning environment consists of the content of the instruction, the methods and instructional strategies that a teacher uses, the learning strategies that a student uses, and the ways the student demonstrates progress and achievement.
Physical Environment
As we discussed in Chapter 1, special educators work in various settings, such as general education classrooms, resource rooms, special-purpose schools, and other places. The physical environment for learning has received considerable emphasis in regard to students with disabilities. For example, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) ensures that all public classrooms are physically accessible to students with disabilities. But simply creating ramps and wide doorways is not enough; students must have access to meaningful instruction and learning activities.
To participate fully in learning activities, students should have physical access to appropriate classroom materials and equipment. For example, a visitor to Mario Stefani’s social studies class observes students working in small groups using a variety of materials. One group of four students works together using laptops, whereas another group uses graph paper, pens, colored pencils, and various small cardboard shapes. Tony, a student with mental retardation, is an active participant in another group of four students who are using wooden forms to create a model of the social structure of an ancient society. The teacher frequently plans various small-group learning activities involving hands-on use of materials that are stored in accessible locations. In his classroom, small tables are placed throughout the room for small-group work.
Additional considerations in the physical environment include lighting, temperature, distractions, and noise level. The teacher should adjust lighting so that projectors and computer screens are free from glare, which can make reading difficult. The teacher should also check that room displays are not visually distracting. For example, hanging mobiles help a room look attractive, but materials that are visually stimulating may be distracting to some learners. When possible, the teacher arranges seating away from a door, bulletin board, window, or other areas that could distract these students. To create a positive physical environment, the teacher monitors the noise level, making sure that no student work group is loud enough to distract students in other groups.
Figure 6.1
illustrates a teacher-made form for observing the physical environment.
Special educators create positive social environments for students.
Establishing positive relationships with peers and teachers and building a school community are important components of the educational program for all students. Yet, for many students with disabilities, these relationships may not develop. Students with disabilities in fourth and fifth grades report that they felt lonely at school (
Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2000
). Murray and Greenberg (2001) found that students with disabilities in fifth and sixth grades are more dissatisfied with their relationships with teachers and establish poorer bonds with school than students without disabilities.
Research studies such as these suggest that special educators today must plan ways of creating positive social environments for students with disabilities while planning interventions to strengthen relationships between students with and without disabilities. In fact, Hunt (2000) found that teachers were the driving force for the unification of general education and special education programs. These teachers worked together to develop needed curricular adaptations and social supports, often coteaching in the classroom. They implemented a social curriculum and conflict-resolution procedures. They respected and valued all students and, in return, expected all students to respect others. Successful teachers also encourage students to attempt new and difficult tasks and to take learning risks. Teachers hold high expectations for all students, and students’ attempts are valued.
Figure 6.2
illustrates a teacher-made form for observing the social environment.
Figure 6.1 Observing the physical environment
Source: From Assessment of Children and Youth with Special Needs (3rd ed.), by L. G. Cohen and L. J. Spenciner. Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Figure 6.2 Observing the social environment
Source: From Assessment of Children and Youth with Special Needs (3rd ed.), by L. G. Cohen and L. J. Spenciner. Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
As noted previously, the classroom learning environment includes the content of instruction, the instructional strategies that the teacher employs, the learning strategies that students use, and the methods students use to demonstrate progress and achievement. Students bring diverse needs, skills, and abilities to the classroom. How can learning experiences be meaningful and relevant for each student? How can teachers help every student achieve high academic standards? Teachers frequently plan and organize instruction across more than one content area to help students make learning connections. For example, one team of teachers planned an integrated unit in literacy, science, and social studies. Students broadened their understanding of the 1800s not only by studying historical events but also by participating in and writing about activities that illustrate the way of life during that period. They conducted research to learn how people dressed and what foods they ate. They created replicas of simple machines that people used and learned how they worked.
In planning an integrated unit, teachers frequently embed the student’s IEP goals and objectives within lesson plans and teaching activities. Let us return to Tony, the boy with mental retardation whom we met earlier. When planning instructional activities for Tony and the other students, Nelson Barnes, the social studies teacher, decided to design activities that would involve small-group work. Encouraging students to work and learn together enables them to grasp concepts of earlier societies in which work was interdependent. For Tony, learning to work with peers is not only important for understanding these concepts but is also part of his IEP. One of his goals is to increase his skills in working cooperatively with peers. Learning activities that involve both individual and group work support the diverse abilities that students bring to the classroom.
In a report that analyzed how planning instruction to meet a wide range of student abilities and standards-based curricula affects students with disabilities, Jorgensen (1997) found that several essential questions challenge and support students both with and without disabilities. Some of these questions include: What is the central unit, problem, or question? What will interest students—for example, serve as a unit “grabber” or kick-off activity? What are the learning experiences? What assessment approaches can be used? What are the culminating projects? Educators must consider many questions such as these in planning and organizing the learning environment.
Figure 6.3
illustrates a teacher-made form for considering the learning environment.
Planning and organizing instruction for students with disabilities involves working closely with general education teachers and the general education curriculum so that all students can achieve high standards. For example, Raphael Suazo, the special education teacher, meets regularly with the classroom teachers to consult and coordinate education planning for Tony. Tony participates in the general education classes for social studies and science and receives specially designed instruction for mathematics and language arts in the resource room. Raphael, who majored in mathematics with a concentration in special education, is responsible for delivering mathematics instruction; another special educator, who is also highly qualified but in English and language arts, teaches an intensive English course for Tony and a small group of other students. As with each student in the high school, Tony is expected to work toward high achievement in every academic area.
Figure 6.3 Observing the learning environment
Source: Excerpts from Assessment of Children and Youth with Special Needs (3rd ed.), by L. G. Cohen and L. J. Spenciner. Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
Physical, Social, and Learning Environments
In considering the physical, social, and learning environments, the teacher plans ways to enable students to connect classroom learning with their homes and communities. Learning experiences and instructional activities should be culturally relevant and meaningful. Diversity perspectives should be embedded when planning units of instruction. For example, in planning a unit on nutrition, the teacher plans and organizes instructional activities so students learn about foods from various cultural groups that are part of the community. Meaningful learning experiences, such as inviting students to bring in a recipe from home to create a classroom cookbook, are included in the unit.
Teachers create culturally responsive social environments, too. They arrange collaborative groups to encourage student learning. They work to connect prior experiences with new learning. Students engage in a variety of activities that allow them to move about the classroom. What should a teacher consider in planning and organizing instruction that is effective for all students? After extensive research, the Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence has developed five principles for effective pedagogy that are applicable across K–12 grade levels (
Dalton, 1998
).
1.
Joint productive activity
The teacher designs instructional activities requiring student collaboration to accomplish a joint product…. [The teacher] organizes students in a variety of groupings, such as by friendship, mixed academic ability, language, project, or interests, to promote interaction. [The teacher] plans with students how to work in groups…. (p. 11)
2.
Developing language and literacy across the curriculum
The teacher listens to students talk about familiar topics such as home and community…. [The teacher] assists written and oral language development through modeling, eliciting, probing, restating, clarifying, questioning, praising, etc., in purposeful conversation and writing. [The teacher] interacts with students in ways that respect students’ preferences for speaking that may be different from the teacher’s, such as wait-time, eye contact, turn-taking, or spotlighting…. [The teacher] encourages students’ use of first and second languages in instructional activities. (p. 17)
3.
Making meaning
Connecting school to students’ lives. The teacher … designs instructional activities that are meaningful to students in terms of local community norms and knowledge…. [The teacher] acquires knowledge of local norms and knowledge by talking to students, parents, or family members, community members, and by reading pertinent documents…. [The teacher] plans jointly with students to design community-based learning activities…. (p. 22)
4.
Teaching complex thinking
The teacher assures that students—for each instructional topic—see the whole picture as a basis for understanding the parts…. [The teacher] designs instructional tasks that advance student understanding to more complex levels…. [The teacher] gives clear, direct feedback about how student performance compares with the challenging standards…. (p. 26)
5.
Teaching through conversation
The teacher … has a clear academic goal that guides conversation with students. [The teacher] ensures that student talk occurs at higher rates than teacher talk…. [The teacher] guides conversation to include students’ views, judgments, and rationales using text evidence and other substantive support…. (p. 30)
Questions for Reflection
1. Consider the students in your community schools. To develop language and literacy across the curriculum (see recommendation 2), what children’s books and folk tales can you locate that would help you in working with these students?
2. To become more knowledgeable about the culture and traditions of the students in your community schools, what online resources would be helpful?
Chapter 5 Linking Assessment and Instruction
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
Discuss contemporary views regarding assessment practices and instruction.
Compare and contrast contemporary assessment approaches for planning and monitoring instruction.
Discuss approaches to evaluating instruction, including state and federal mandates that influence practices.
Describe professional standards and ethics in assessing students with disabilities.
Good teaching always begins with an understanding of what the student already knows and can do. Before special educators start to plan specific instruction, they identify questions and gather information about the student’s knowledge, skills, and abilities.
Educators continue to gather information, or perform assessment, during the lesson or instructional activities, in monitoring student work, and at the end of the instructional unit. When linking assessment with instruction, an educator uses student assessment information to make instructional decisions regarding introducing new material, providing additional practice with supplementary learning activities, or modifying lessons and using different instructional strategies. In other words, the assessment information guides teaching practices.
Finally, assessments that are closely aligned with the curriculum provide a special educator with valuable help in monitoring student progress. By examining this assessment information, the educator can identify areas of proficiency and areas where the student is making progress. Assessment information also indicates areas in which the student needs attention, signaling the teacher that adjustments should be made in instruction.
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Educators use an array of assessment approaches from student to student and from classroom to classroom. Perhaps as a student, you have experienced some of the many different ways teachers (and professors) monitor and assess achievement. Contemporary researchers have written about the importance—and connections—of good assessment to effective teaching. According to Shepard (as cited in
Olson, 2002
, p. 2), “We have strong evidence that high-quality classroom assessment improves learning tremendously, possibly more effectively than any other sort of teaching intervention.” In this chapter, we look at various assessment approaches and ways teachers construct high-quality assessments and, link assessments with instruction to help students with disabilities meet high academic standards, develop positive behaviors, and demonstrate competent social skills.
Before planning instruction, teachers use various assessment approaches to identify what students know and can do. They gather information about academic achievement, attainment of social skills, and positive behaviors. Many of the traditional assessment practices, such as teacher-developed quizzes and standardized achievement tests, focus on content knowledge. These assessment approaches require students to recall or identify information. By contrast, contemporary assessments focus not only on knowledge but also on process skills, learning strategies, thinking skills, acquisition of social and personal behaviors, effective communication, and work habits. Students may be asked to compare, analyze, and evaluate information in these types of assessments.
Each of the assessment approaches discussed in this chapter has its own strengths and limitations. Some approaches are best used as an integral part of instruction. Curriculum-based assessments, criterion-referenced assessments, probes, and observations are examples of assessments that occur before and during instruction. These types of assessments are known as formative assessments. Formative assessments provide students and teachers with ongoing information about their work and progress. For teachers, formative assessments provide information about what students can do and enable teachers to reflect on what methods and strategies are most effective in supporting student learning (
Darling-Hammond & Ancess, 1996
).
Other approaches, referred to as
summative assessments
, occur at the end of lessons, instructional units, or marking periods to show student growth and progress. Student performances, portfolios, teacher-made exams, and standardized tests are examples of summative assessments. Although summative assessments provide students time to develop understandings, sometimes students have to wait a long time to receive feedback. Chapter 9 presents another valuable assessment approach, student observations, used in both formative and summative assessments.
When selecting an assessment approach, teachers should be knowledgeable of IDEA mandates. Regarding assessment practices, IDEA states that assessments and other evaluation materials used to assess a child must be provided and administered in the child’s native language or other mode of communication. The assessment should be in the form most likely to yield accurate information about what the child knows and can do academically, developmentally, and functionally, unless it is clearly not feasible to do so.
Because teachers use a variety of assessment approaches to make informed decisions, the assessment approach and the scoring procedure must be both reliable and valid. Teachers want to have confidence in the results. The
reliability
of an assessment refers to the “scoring procedure that enables the examiner to quantify, evaluate, and interpret behavior or work samples. Reliability refers to the consistency of such measurements when the testing procedure is repeated on a population of individuals or groups” (
American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education, 1999
).
The
validity
of a test or other measure refers to the “degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores entailed by the proposed tests” (
American Educational Research Association et al., 1999
, p. 9). An educator who needs information about a student’s reading comprehension or a student’s ability to solve a mathematical problem must have confidence that the assessment approach will provide that information.
Curriculum-based assessment (CBA)
provides valuable information to special educators about what students know and are able to do. Because CBAs consist of items that address specific areas of student knowledge or skills, a teacher can use the assessment results to pinpoint a student’s actual skill levels. This information allows the teacher to develop appropriate instructional and learning activities and to focus instruction on what the student needs to master. Special educators frequently use the results of CBA to determine a student’s progress toward school district or state curriculum standards.
Developing a CBA
1.
Identify the content area and performance objectives.
By identifying performance objectives, educators define the behaviors that the student must demonstrate in order to indicate progress. Because a CBA focuses on specific areas of the curriculum, educators begin by carefully examining the curriculum area and identifying the specific information or skills they wish to assess. Educators consider the kind of information students should know: facts, concepts, rules, and/or strategies (
Howell & Nolet, 2000
). Facts are pieces of information that the student has memorized, such as the temperature at which water freezes or capitals of various countries. Concepts involve more than memorizing and recall; they require the student to understand and distinguish the attributes of one concept from another. Rules and strategies involve both memorizing and identifying situations in which the rule or strategy applies. A well-constructed CBA typically assesses two or more types of information.
2.
Decide on the question and response format.
Before educators begin writing the actual test questions, they will need to decide if the assessment will be a paper-and-pencil assessment or if it will be available as a digital file accessible by computer. Educators can construct assessment items that require students to use their laptops to respond in a text or voice note or on a traditional answer sheet.
Educators address other considerations as well, including what question formats to include in the assessment and how students will be asked to respond (
Hargrove, Church, Yssel, & Koch, 2002
). Question formats include total recall, fill in the blank, multiple choice, and matching. Students with cognitive disabilities and short-term memory difficulties may have more difficulty with some question formats than others.
3.
Write the test questions.
In this step, educators develop the specific test questions that correspond to the performance objectives. The content of the test questions should be closely aligned with the curriculum. This will help to ensure that the assessment is valid.
4.
Develop scoring procedures.
Educators must decide how test items will be scored and how educators will determine student progress. For example, a question could be scored as right or wrong, or a certain number of points could be assigned based on the student’s response.
5.
Organize and interpret the information.
Educators consider how best to organize the assessment information so that it can be interpreted easily. They frequently create a bar or line graph. By using graphs, educators and the student and family members can observe a student’s progress.
Using CBAs.
Special educators frequently use CBAs to determine a student’s skill level and to monitor student progress. For example, in reading, special educator Per Lysaker uses CBAs to assess reading accuracy as well as reading comprehension. To assess reading accuracy, Per selects a 100-word passage and records the number of errors that the student makes. He then subtracts the number of errors from the number of words read (100) to calculate the number of words read correctly and compares that number to 100 (
Idol, 1996
). Thus, if a student makes 5 errors in a 100-word passage, the student’s reading accuracy is 95%:
Accuracy=number of correct wordstotal number of word(100)=95100=95%
To assess reading comprehension, Per identifies not only questions that will allow students to gather information directly described in the story (literal-level questions) but also questions to encourage students to interpret (inferential-level questions) and apply (application-level questions) information. These expectations involve student understanding of the story, such as the characters and their traits, the setting, the author’s purpose in writing the story, and lesson(s) the student learned.
Figure 5.1
illustrates Per’s CBA to assess reading comprehension. Which questions do you think are literal-level questions? Which are inferential-level questions? Which are application-level questions? (The answers are found on
page 154
.)
Figure 5.1 Teacher-developed CBA
Sometimes special educators use a variation of CBA called
curriculum-based measurement (CBM)
. CBM (
Deno, 1985
) assesses specific areas of the curriculum as well as using graphs of the assessment information to make instructional decisions and implement interventions. Each week Per graphs a student’s performances and uses this information to monitor the student’s progress. He makes changes in instruction when the assessment results indicate that the student is continuing to experience difficulty.
A special educator uses curriculum-based measurement to monitor student progress.
Bar graphs illustrate the number and types of questions that a student completes successfully each week (
Figure 5.2
). Bar graphs are useful when Per wishes to display the assessment information in terms of the number of correct answers and compare progress in two or more areas.
Figure 5.2 Percentage of words read correctly on the weekly CBA
Figure 5.3
Curriculum-based reading comprehension assessment results showing improvement in the student’s reading comprehension
Line graphs are useful when a teacher wishes to display the assessment information by plotting trends over time. For example, Figure 5.3 illustrates reading accuracy (the percentage of words read correctly) on a weekly assessment.
The usefulness of CBM is well supported by research findings (
Busch & Espin, 2003
;
Fuchs et al., 2007
;
Wallace, Espin, McMaster, & Deno, 2007
;
Wayman, Wallace, Wiley, Tichá, & Espin, 2007
).
When CBAs and CBMs produce reliable and valid assessment information, special educators have specific and useful information when designing instruction to help students with disabilities attain high levels of achievement. However, developing good CBAs or CBMs requires a broad base of curricular knowledge. Educators must have not only a strong background in the assessed curriculum but also knowledge of prerequisite skills needed to demonstrate the performance objectives. Developing an assessment can be a time-consuming process.
Criterion-referenced tests
provide information about a student’s knowledge and skills in one or more specific content areas. A criterion-referenced test usually contains a number of test items relative to each area. When the student has completed the assessment, the teacher synthesizes the information to obtain a picture of the student’s current level of performance in the area. Various types of criterion-referenced tests may be purchased commercially; however, the teacher should carefully review the test items to ensure that the assessment reflects the content of the classroom curriculum.
Probes
Probes
are teacher-developed questions or informal test items that provide a quick estimate of a specific skill. Typically, a probe is administered when a teacher meets individually with a student to assess achievement or diagnose areas of weakness in mathematics, reading, written language, science, social studies, or other content areas. For example, at the beginning of the year, a special educator might wonder if a student with a learning disability will be able to read and comprehend the science supplements used in the general classroom. The special educator introduces the material and asks the student to read aloud several paragraphs, noting the words that present difficulty. The special educator also checks for understanding using a series of guided questions, or probes. This information will be helpful in making decisions about instructional strategies and how much support the student will need.
Sometimes teachers develop a probe sheet to provide a written record regarding mastery or accuracy of specific skills. Probe sheets can be used to assess a student’s beginning reading skills or ability to compute mathematical operations. One special educator developed a probe sheet to assess a student’s ability to use regrouping in subtraction (
Figure 5.4
). Using the information gained, the special educator planned a number of specially designed instructional activities for the student. Teachers may also use a probe sheet to check on the retention of information learned earlier in the year.
Figure 5.4 Teacher-developed probe sheet
Teachers construct quizzes and exams to assess student knowledge in specific areas of the curriculum. Teachers frequently develop pretests to gather information about what students already know about a unit before planning instruction. At other times teachers use quizzes to assess understanding. This information helps teachers determine student progress and modify instruction if needed.
Classroom quizzes and exams are different from standardized achievement tests and large-scale statewide achievement tests that are designed to sample a broad range of achievement. Teacher-developed tests link directly to classroom learning.
Developing items for a quiz or test takes thought and practice. Teachers consider the following:
• What content is important for the student to know?
• How will this content be assessed?
• Should students be able to recognize the correct answer or should the question be open ended?
• Should students be asked to apply what they know?
• Are the test format and the method of student response designed so that they are accessible for students with disabilities in the classroom?
Let’s look at several different types of questions that teachers use and when they might select specific types. We also consider the student responses required, depending on the type of question.
Teachers develop
selected-response questions
when they want students to be able to recognize and select the correct answer. True/false and multiple-choice questions are examples of selected-response questions. These questions are designed to focus on reading and thinking skills in the content areas (such as literature, social studies, or science) rather than writing or computational skills. Students respond to these questions by circling or checking the correct response.
One of the disadvantages of selected-response questions is that students may identify the correct answer even if they do not know it or have only partial knowledge. In completing true/false questions, students have a 50% chance of guessing the correct answer; in completing multiple-choice questions, students have a 25% chance (if there are four possible answers) of guessing correctly.
Constructed-response questions
provide a format for students to demonstrate what they know by using their own words, mathematical reasoning, or illustrations to construct the answer. Short-answer and essay questions are examples of constructed-response questions. For example, a teacher may want students to compare and contrast characters, settings, and plots in the stories that they have read recently. Or, a teacher may want students to demonstrate that they can synthesize knowledge about a time in history by explaining the key conditions in society that contributed to a major event.
Constructed-response questions assess understanding and the ability to communicate, even if the teacher does not give credit (or take it off) for organization, logical development, spelling, and grammar. These questions also require students to organize their thoughts and to hold them in their memories while completing the answer. The requirements of constructed-response questions may pose difficulties for some students with disabilities, especially those with language-based learning disabilities.
Validity is a critical concept in teacher-constructed tests because it refers to the usefulness of test scores. In designing classroom assessments, teachers must be careful that a student’s score reflects the student’s knowledge of curriculum content and not the level of disability. For a student with a disability, validity concerns can focus on (a) reading and understanding the test items, (b) processing and organizing answers, and (c) communicating responses.
Students’ disabilities can affect their ability to read and understand and communicate. When teachers assess achievement in subjects other than reading by requiring students to read questions or other material, validity may be compromised. Thus, assessments in mathematics, science, or social studies that require students to read may not accurately assess student knowledge. For example, a 10-question science quiz would yield a score measuring not only knowledge of science but also of reading ability. To ensure that the quiz is testing only knowledge of science, the teacher could have a teacher aide read the questions aloud to the students or create a digital file of the quiz so that students could use text-to-speech software to “read” the quiz. Of course, if the quiz were designed to test reading ability, students would be required to read the questions independently. Generally, modifications (such as having a different set of questions) and accommodations (such as having a reader or text-to-speech software) to students’ programs are listed in the students’ IEPs.
Students’ disabilities may also affect their ability to process information and organize and communicate responses. Constructed-response questions require students to use short-term memory in formulating answers. For students with learning disabilities, holding information in short-term memory may be very difficult. The resulting score, then, will reflect not only students’ level of knowledge but also their ability to organize and remember.
Students with disabilities may need alternative ways to compose a response. Some of the ways that students can respond to test items include marking the correct item, writing an answer by using pencil and paper, typing an answer by using a keyboard, text messaging on a personal cell phone, selecting an answer by touching a computer screen, or telling the answer to a person who is acting as a recorder. Deciding how students can respond to classroom quizzes and exams could be part of the IEP team’s meeting agenda, or a teacher can meet with the students to discuss individual preferences. Teachers also make these decisions during the instructional process and as part of continuous monitoring.
Like other assessments, teacher-constructed quizzes and exams may have errors. For example, they may be difficult to score accurately, because a teacher may be inconsistent in scoring students’ papers; this will affect test reliability. The wording of test items may be ambiguous, resulting in misinterpretation.
Rater drift
describes the occurrence of shifting criteria or a change of emphasis from those originally held by the teacher when the grading of papers began. Personal bias, or a teacher’s impressions of a student, affects the teacher’s judgment and grading of constructed-response questions as well.
In addition to guarding against errors that are associated with grading student performance, teachers can strengthen these assessments by carefully planning what will be tested. Developing a test involves clarifying what is expected in terms of student achievement. Aligned with standards, the test items sample what students should know and be able to do as a result of planned instruction and accompanying activities. Teachers should consider the reading level of students in developing the questions and include enough items to cover the key material. Finally, teachers can ask colleagues to review the test and provide feedback regarding clarity of questions and coverage of content.
A student can also provide information about what he or she knows and is able to do. The student can identify areas that continue to present difficulty and suggest ways to help. Information from a student’s point of view provides a teacher with a unique perspective. There are several ways that a student can share a self-report. One informal way is through a personal conversation with a teacher. The conversation takes place at a planned time, providing the student an opportunity to think in advance about current achievements, strengths, and difficulties.
In talking with the student, a teacher can probe for additional information using the following questions:
• What are you most proud of in terms of your work in this marking period?
• What has proved to be the most difficult problem?
• What study strategies do you use?
• How do you go about getting help?
In addition, a teacher can use a more structured approach by preparing a set of questions to which the student responds. The teacher may meet with the student to discuss the questions or ask the student to respond to them in writing. By using a consistent set of questions, a special educator can gather the same information from several students, which can be helpful in examining common needs among students or in planning group instruction.
Snapshot: Susan’s Geometry Lesson—Reflecting on Sam’s Self-Report
The following reflection was recorded in a journal kept by educator Susan Moore, who teachers in an inclusive sixth-grade classroom. “Today we started a new geometry unit, and I reintroduced the terms perimeter and area. Sam did not know the meaning of these terms, nor could he explain them at the beginning of our class. The first activity dealt with estimating and then physically measuring the distance around our classroom. Using a ball of twine, Sam and his group measured the entire perimeter; then we went outside to lay the twine out. Using a tape measure, Sam determined the length. I noticed that he had extreme difficulty understanding the measure and increments when it came to inches and feet. He read 10 ft 3 in. as 10.3 ft. Several students quickly corrected him.”
Susan continues, “To calculate area, the students then measured each of the two sides. Sam knew the opposing sides would be the same lengths. The results were not the same, so we brainstormed reasons why. Sam had several great logical reasons as to the difference in measurements, which he recorded.
“In talking with Sam after the activity, he felt that this activity was ‘silly’ and he couldn’t see how he would use the information in a ‘real job.’ Sam is very self-conscious, which I was not aware of. I’ll also try to refrain from creating situations where Sam may feel uncomfortable. In the next lesson, I’ll try to incorporate measurement in more activities that apply to real-world situations.”
Error analysis
is a diagnostic assessment technique in which teachers examine student work to identify patterns of errors. Error analysis may be used with various assessment approaches but is particularly effective when students make repeated errors in their work, such as in mathematics and reading.
When studying errors in reading, teachers sometimes refer to this process as
miscue analysis
. A
miscue
is a word that a student substitutes for the actual word when reading aloud. Although everyone makes miscues at times, accomplished readers tend to make miscues that retain the underlying meaning of the text; less proficient readers make miscues that make little sense in the context of the passage (
Learner, 2006
). By analyzing the types of miscues a student makes, a special educator can make adjustments in instruction or plan additional instructional activities. In addition to continuing to collect information through the various approaches described previously, a teacher may select other assessment approaches to monitor student progress.
Snapshot: Per Lysaker
Per Lysaker, the special educator that you met in Chapter 4, uses error analysis in his work with students with disabilities. Today, as he works with a student, he asks the student to read aloud a passage from the text. Following along in the teacher copy, Per notes any miscues that the student makes. For example, the student might read, “The snow melted quietly because the sun was so warm.” Because many of Per’s students have learning disabilities, the miscues they make often reflect letter substitutions that result in the sentences not making sense. By using the information in error analysis, Per can plan instructional activities to help the student check to make sure that the sentence is logical. Error analysis allows him to monitor the student’s progress closely and to link the assessment information with instructional activities.
At the end of the unit, teachers use assessment information to determine student achievement. This information is helpful to students and their parents as well. Approaches such as performance-based assessments and portfolios provide evidence of new skills and learning. Teachers may also use teacher-made tests and standardized assessments to compare student achievement levels. A
standardized test
is one in which the administration, scoring, and interpretation procedures are strictly followed. Aptitude and achievement assessments are examples of standardized tests. Norm-referenced instruments are commercially published tests that compare a student’s test performance with that of similar students who have taken the same test.
Selecting Appropriate Assessment Approaches
Performance-based assessments consist of performance tasks and task-assessment lists or checklists. In
performance tasks
, students construct, demonstrate, or perform tasks that provide evidence of their knowledge, skills, and behaviors. Tasks may range from short activities to projects developed over several months or a year. Educators consider these tasks and their assessment as an integral part of student learning.
Performance tasks involve students in a variety of work formats, such as writing (an autobiography, a children’s book, a cartoon, or an essay); drawing and designing (a bulletin board, clothing from a certain period in time, or a technical illustration); composing (music, dance, or a song); developing (a graphic organizer to represent a concept, Web page, or slide show); or problem solving (creating a story problem or making a puzzle). Teachers may identify the task(s), or students and teachers together may identify performance task choices. Frequently, school or grade-level teaching teams identify a set of performance formats that all students will learn to use, ensuring that students will have opportunities to develop a variety of skills across performance tasks, such as speaking, conceptualizing information in a graphic, and writing.
Performance tasks that are completed in a real-life context are referred to as
authentic assessment
. The conditions for authentic assessment, such as task complexity, motivation, and standards, are sometimes quite different from those of other performance tasks. Writing a children’s book and sharing it with younger children is an example of an authentic task.
To help students understand what they will be expected to do, teachers often provide
benchmarks
—examples of performance tasks or products that other students have completed. Teachers use benchmarks to help students understand the types and quality of work that are expected. Over time, teachers can develop a collection of excellent and lower-quality examples of student work to use as benchmarks. Also, teachers can find examples of benchmarks on many national organization Web sites and other education Internet resources. By seeing examples, students not only develop an understanding of what is expected but can also use benchmarks to evaluate and improve their own work.
A
checklist
is a list of the elements, components, or steps that must be present in a performance or product. A student or teacher simply checks off whether the element, component, or step is present. One of the advantages of a checklist is that it can be used to show whether a student has performed a series of steps in the correct order. A checklist used by a student with a disability provides a way of organizing an assignment or a performance. For example, in teaching how to solve a mathematical word problem, a teacher shows a student how first to look for the key words and then to identify the mathematical operation indicated. By putting these steps together, the student and teacher can create a checklist for solving word problems. Later, the student uses the checklist as a guide in completing the homework assignment.
Checklists are useful if the components that make up the performance can be listed or if the performance behaviors are in a sequence (
Nitko & Brookhart, 2007
). Checklists do not include a description of the quality of a component but simply indicate the presence or absence of the item. Checklists are not appropriate when assessing performances that have a range of qualitatively different levels, such as a piece of writing (
Arter & McTighe, 2001
).
A
task-assessment list
not only identifies each component of a performance or product that must be present but also rates the quality of each component, rather than just indicating its presence or absence (as in a checklist). Educators can indicate quality by assigning a number of possible points, such as 10 out of 15, or indicating a numerical score on a rating scale, such as 4 on a scale from 1 to 5. Other rating scales can use graphics, such as a series of pictures or icons depicting a progression from poor to excellent or qualitative terms such as beginner, intermediate, and expert.
Teachers share the task-assessment list with students so that everyone has a written copy of the performance task and the expectations. Some areas of the assessment task list may be worth more points than others if a teacher is emphasizing certain skills. Alternatively, if the skill relates directly to a student’s IEP, a teacher may weight the parts of the performance task according to the special needs of the student.
Figure 5.5
illustrates the task-assessment list for writing a newspaper article.
Performance tasks have been criticized for taking a large amount of class time and providing only limited opportunities for students to demonstrate what they know and can do. Much of this criticism is directed at educators who use only a few performance tasks for students to demonstrate their work. Incorporating a variety of smaller performance tasks may help reduce these problems.
Figure 5.5 Task-assessment list for a newspaper article
Source: Adapted from Performance-Based Learning and Assessment, Educators in Connecticut’s Pomperaug Regional School District 15, 1996. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Adapted with permission.
A special educator uses performance-based assessment.
Performance-based assessment, like other assessment approaches, may have problems of reliability and validity. The components of the performance task may not adequately cover the knowledge, skills, or behaviors that are to be tested. The performance task may be unclear to students. The scoring system may be interpreted in more than one way. Or, a teacher’s bias toward students can affect the assigned rating. A teacher may assign a higher rating than the student’s work indicates because the teacher “feels” that the student is capable; the converse also can be true. This bias is known as the
halo effect
.
A teacher can address sources of error introduced by tasks that do not reflect the curriculum standards, inadequate rating procedures, or the halo effect by involving other professionals in the assessment. Other educators or paraprofessionals can assist the teacher in rating student performances or products. When their ratings do not match, they discuss their reasons for selecting a particular rating. Sometimes these discussions result in the teacher’s refining the description in the performance list or including a description that defines the task or performance in terms that can be observed; all these measures increase reliability.
The following guidelines ensure the reliability and validity of performance-based assessments:
• Performance tasks should be aligned with curricular goals or curriculum frameworks.
• Assessment task lists should be designed to reflect the knowledge, skills, and behaviors that students will demonstrate.
• Written scoring criteria should be clear.
• Students should understand what they are expected to do in each part of the performance task and how their performance will be scored.
• Students should have a written copy of the assessment task list with the scoring criteria.
• Students should have access to examples and benchmarks.
• Students should have multiple opportunities to participate in performance tasks throughout each school year.
• More than one teacher should be involved in scoring student performance-based assessments.
A
portfolio
is a collection of student work that has been assembled systematically over a period of time (Cohen & Spenciner, 2007). Each of the
artifacts
, or student products placed in the portfolio, demonstrates what the student knows and can do, providing concrete examples of progress. For students with disabilities, portfolio artifacts also can be linked directly to the IEP. The portfolio can be shared at parent conferences and during the IEP team’s annual review of the student’s program.
Educators use portfolio assessments for different purposes. A process portfolio illustrates a student’s progress in a specific area of study, such as writing or drawing. A best works portfolio contains examples of a student’s achievement in various areas of the curriculum assembled during the year, whereas a cumulative portfolio may be developed over several years and may be part of graduation requirements. Usually, the purpose of a cumulative portfolio is to provide evidence that a student has attained a specific achievement or skill level.
Before portfolio assessment is introduced to students, individual teachers, curriculum teams, and districtwide educators put much thought into the purpose and development of portfolio assessment. Like performance-based assessment, the contents of the portfolio are associated with the school’s curricular standards.
For students with disabilities, portfolio assessment provides evidence of student work and progress. If the portfolio is a school requirement, the IEP team will discuss whether the student needs any accommodations or modifications to complete the requirement successfully. Let us visit with the IEP team for Jared to discover how the third-grade teachers are using portfolios and the modifications that they will make based on Jared’s needs.
During the IEP meeting, team members discussed the school’s portfolio requirements. To address Jared’s learning and problems, they decided that they would need to include two modifications in the portfolio sections Language and Literacy and Physical Education. The team added a portfolio section entitled Social Skills so that there would be a record of Jared’s progress in developing positive behaviors and working with others, as described in his IEP goals (
Figure 5.6
).
If a student with a disability is experiencing difficulty in achieving the portfolio requirements, the IEP team should consider what additional services, AT, accommodations, or modifications might be needed so that the student can participate in the portfolio-assessment process. Students with disabilities, like students without disabilities, may need additional instruction in reflecting on and judging their work and in understanding the rubric and how their work will be assessed. (Rubrics are defined and discussed further on
page 143
.) These IEP team decisions must be made early in the school year so that the student’s program can be monitored and adjusted if necessary.
Figure 5.6 A portfolio for elementary students modified by the IEP team for Jared
One of the advantages of portfolio assessment is that it provides an opportunity for students to reflect on their classroom progress over time. Students become part of the assessment process as they revisit, reflect on, and judge their own work (
Airasian & Russell, 2008
); students learn a great deal as they make selections, assemble, and review products for their portfolio. Teachers work closely with individual students, helping them select artifacts that represent a diversity of skills and achievement. In addition, teachers can discuss and model the process skills of reflecting and judging when students are not familiar with them.
A special educator discusses possible portfolio artifacts with a student.
Educators strengthen portfolio assessments by designing learning activities in which students have enough time to reflect on their work. Assembling a portfolio challenges students to think about their learning and their progress. Using a self-reflection process with each artifact, students should include an explanation of why the particular artifact was chosen. Educators can assist students in reflecting on their works in progress and on their completed works by asking questions such as these:
• Why do you consider this an example of your best work?
• How did you accomplish this task?
• What might you do differently if you were to do this again?
Questions that help students to think about their group work might include the following:
• What were the points made by the group as it reviewed your work?
• Describe your response to each point. Did you agree or disagree? Why?
• What did you do as the result of their feedback (
Arter & Spandel, 1992
, p. 40)?
In addition to recording their reflections, conversations with others regarding their work give students the opportunity to think about what they are learning. Students can discuss their work and share observations and reflections with the classroom teacher, the special educator, and their parents. Parents, too, can share their observations and reflections. Therapists, school counselors, social workers, rehabilitation counselors, and others also add rich perspectives. A student might, for example, share with the counselor a written reflection regarding progress in using appropriate behaviors that are tied to the student’s IEP and ask the counselor to add comments (
Figure 5.7
).
Figure 5.7 Student questions for reflecting on classroom behaviors
Source: Adapted from Implementing Student-Led Conferences (p. 50), by
J. M. Bailey and T. R. Guskey, 2001
, Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Adapted with permission.
Teachers use portfolios to provide concrete examples of student work in discussions with parents; sometimes teachers involve students in these discussions and conferences. Although the teacher traditionally takes responsibility for planning and conducting conferences, portfolios actively involve students in the parent-teacher conference. Students can participate in conferences by explaining their portfolio artifacts and responding to questions regarding their participation and behaviors.
Teachers may ask students to take the lead during conferences, assisting with conference planning and organization, sharing the contents of their portfolios, discussing their work with their parents, asking for parent feedback, and, finally, evaluating the conference. Bailey and Guskey (2001) describe student-led conferences as one way of increasing student responsibility for learning. When students know that they will be reporting to parents or other significant adults, they see the importance of making a good effort, completing their work, and being able to discuss what their work demonstrates.
Teachers who incorporate portfolios in the classroom often observe positive changes in the learning, behavior, and academic achievement of students (Gordon & Bonilla-Bowman, 1996). In many circumstances, students increase their own awareness of how they are learning. They become more sophisticated in revising and reflecting on their work and progress. They are able to talk about and comprehend their thinking processes. When portfolios are involved, much of the students’ assessment is also instruction; as students discuss the merits of their work with teachers, they often learn how the work may be improved.
A rubric is similar to a task-assessment list in that it is an assessment scale that identifies the component(s) of performance and the various levels of achievement. However, rubrics consist of narrative statements, or
descriptors
, that provide detailed information about the quality of each achievement level. Because the areas and descriptors identified in the rubric define what the students should know and be able to do, these areas should be tied directly to the curriculum. Rubrics are used to assess various types of student work and performance, including portfolio and performance-based assessments.
Using an Internet search engine, educators can find examples of rubrics across the curriculum. Having good examples to follow helps teachers develop new rubrics. Teachers may work together in workshops or staff-development trainings to develop rubrics for particular curriculum units or they may include students in a classroom activity to create a rubric. Teachers discuss the rubric with students so that they understand the levels of achievement and how their work will be evaluated.
The scoring system must be both reliable and valid so that educators, students, and parents can have confidence in the assessment results. Students need to understand how performances and products will be scored. The rubric should include well-written, detailed descriptors that clearly specify each level of achievement. Poorly written rubrics consist of descriptors that are ambiguous or unclear. When teachers use poorly written rubrics, they may score student work inconsistently.
Using rubrics to assess student work and guide instruction takes much practice. Arter and McTighe (2001) offer the following guidelines for effective rubrics:
• The rubric helps teachers think about what it means to perform with high quality.
• The rubric is written so clearly that different teachers would assign the same rating.
• A single teacher would be able to provide consistent ratings across assignments and students over a period of time.
• There are several examples of student work that illustrate each rating or score point.
• The language used in the rubric is appropriate for the variety of students in typical classrooms, including English language learners. (Adapted from pp. 45–51)
Having information about assignments available on the class Web site helps all students, especially students with disabilities. Students can check assignment descriptions and due dates. They can review benchmarks that provide examples and review the scoring systems (checklist, task-assessment list, or rubric, for example) that will be used. Having this information readily available in one place helps students who have difficulty organizing information. Parents, too, can refer to the information and learn more about the expectations for their child.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
Using Appropriate Assessment Practices
Throughout the school year, educators identify learning goals and link instruction with information gleaned from various assessment approaches. Students may be asked to compare, analyze, and evaluate and then communicate or convey information in these types of assessments. Teachers provide many opportunities for students to perform meaningful tasks and create quality products that demonstrate their progress.
Because educators must be sensitive to classroom diversity, they take into account students’ cultural and ethnic heritages, home languages, and prior knowledge and experiences during the instructional planning process. In delivering instruction, educators incorporate diversity perspectives and viewpoints, and they consider diversity preferences as they carefully review assessment approaches to make sure that they are appropriate.
Sometimes performance differences lie not only in the task itself but also in how individuals interpret the task (Garcia, 1994). When educators begin planning a performance-based task, they may identify an individual from the community who can provide a perspective on the community’s culture, language, beliefs, and traditions. This individual can give advice on interpretations of various assessment tasks and review performance tasks to ensure cultural sensitivity.
Questions for Reflection
1. What are some of the historical problems with assessment of students from nondominant cultures?
2. What criteria would you use to evaluate the appropriateness of an assessment approach?
Many of the assessment approaches described in this chapter can readily be shared with parents, family members, or individuals within and outside the community. Because the Internet reaches so many individuals, teachers can create classroom Web sites or sites specific to projects for the purposes of displaying student work. Students believe that by creating Web portfolios, they develop a greater awareness of their own learning and achievement (Chen, Liu, Ou, & Lin, 2001). In using the Internet to display student work, teachers first obtain parental permission and then protect the confidentiality of student information by not placing identifying information about individual students on the site.
At Henry M. Jackson High School, educators teaching music, visual arts, and language arts use the school’s Web server to post course projects, student portfolios, teacher comments, and peer reviews. English teachers require students to review and evaluate the work of other students using an online rubric. After reading another student’s work, the reviewer scrolls down the screen to the project rubric. Over each rubric row is a slider with values from 0 to 10 where the reviewer can compare and score student work against the standard. At the bottom of the rubric is a text box for further comments. This feedback by the reviewing student is turned in as a review assignment to the instructor. This has two purposes: (a) students are accountable for the quality of their feedback to peers and (b) all students receive thoughtful, constructive comments regarding their work (Duxbury, 2000, p. 30).
Teachers must measure students’ progress in meeting local, state, and national content standards in general education. No Child Left Behind legislation requires that all students in Grades 3–8 be tested in both reading/language arts and mathematics. High school students must be tested sometime during Grades 10–12 in both reading/language arts and mathematics. In science, students must be assessed once during Grades 3–5, once during Grades 6–8, and once during Grades 10–12. IDEA aligns with this legislation and further mandates that all children and youth with disabilities must be included in state- and districtwide assessment programs, with appropriate accommodations and alternative assessments if necessary.
Many states have developed assessments that school districts throughout the state must use. These assessments measure a student’s progress in the academic content areas and, in some states, are used to determine whether a student should pass to the next grade, attend a summer school program, or receive a high school diploma.
A student’s IEP team is responsible for making decisions regarding how the student will participate in these assessments. During this process, team members consider questions such as, Will the student need accommodations to take the districtwide (or statewide) assessment? If the IEP team determines that the student needs one or more accommodations to participate in the assessment, team members identify and describe them in the student’s IEP. Typically, students use the same accommodations for district- and statewide assessments as they do in the classroom when taking quizzes and exams. For example, a student may use a laptop computer to complete written answers or have a teaching assistant record the answers.
Even with accommodations, some students with disabilities are unable to demonstrate what they know because the grade-level assessment is too difficult. IDEA allows states to develop an assessment that is appropriately challenging for this group of students. The number of students who will take a modifed assessment is typically a small percentage of the student population. (No Child Left Behind allows a 2% cap on the number of proficent and high-achieving student scores that can count toward adequate yearly progress.) These students will have IEPs that include goals based on grade-level content standards and provisions for monitoring student progress in achieving those goals.
An additional small number of students with significant cognitive disabilities need further modifed assessment. These specially designed alternative assessments are also developed by the state department of education or the local school and measure individual progress (IDEA 34 C.F.R., Sec. 300.138). According to Thompson and Thurlow (2000), who conducted a national survey of alternative assessments for students with disabilities, the most common alternative approach is a performance-based assessment that measures indicators of progress toward state standards or a set of separate standards not linked to general education standards.
Research (Johnson, Kimball, Brown, & Anderson, 2001; Karkee, Lewis, Barton, & Haug, 2003) regarding the use of accommodations in statewide assessments indicates that more accommodations were provided for elementary school students than for students in middle school. Crawford (2007) found that the use of test accommodations various greatly across states. Other research (Cox, Herner, Demczyk, & Nieberding, 2006) found that states with unrestricted accommodations tended to have a higher percentage of students with disabilities participating in regular state reading and math tests. These research findings raise many questions. Should there be consistency among states in accommodations offered? How are IEP teams trained in understanding accommodations and their application? Much additional research is needed in this area as students with disabilities strive to meet high academic standards.
IN PRACTICE
Assessment approaches such as performance-based tasks and portfolios allow students to showcase their achievement. These assessment approaches also can increase a student’s motivation by applying knowledge and skills to a “real” problem or to an area of special interest.
Classroom Focus
Kathleen should be entering her senior year in high school; however, she has several credits to make up, one of which is math. Kathleen has a diagnosis of other health impairments, including acute anxiety, which keeps her from attending school on a regular basis. She reports that math is her least favorite subject. She works best in a small-group setting with frequent breaks. Kate is artistic, loves color, and is great working with patterns; she is passionate about horses. She would love to attend college majoring in equestrian studies. Someday she wants to work with children with disabilities and horses.
In planning a unit on geometry, special educator Rosemary Bennett wanted her to understand how we use many geometric principles and concepts in our everyday lives. She began with a pretest, but after a fairly brief period of time, it was apparent that Kathleen was becoming anxious. Shortly thereafter, she shut down and could not continue. Thus, although Rosemary had some information, the pretest did not provide a full picture of Kathleen’s areas of strength and need.
Working Toward Solutions
Rosemary explains the first day of instruction, “The first lesson began with a question-and-answer review of the skills and concepts she would need to know in order to begin work on the unit on perimeter, area, and volume. This provided me with basic information regarding what I would need to teach. When I handed her the Performance Task Assessment, her culminating project for the unit, she became enthusiastic about the work that we would be doing. She had a few questions about the assignment and then asked if we could get started. We began by visiting the Web site I suggested to find out how much land is recommended for pasture for one horse. She read the information and took some notes, and we ended our lesson at that point.”
Rosemary continues, “On the following days, I began with a lesson, building on the concepts from the previous day, and then left time for Kathleen to work on the performance task.” Here is the description of this final project:
Performance Task Assessment
More than anything in the world you want a horse; however your parents are concerned about how they would set up an area for the horse and what the cost will be. You have agreed to put together the information that they will need before they will agree to let you have a horse.
Step 1. ~ Research the minimum paddock area need for one horse. Visit Virginia Cooperative Extension—Virginia’s horse pastures; grazing management.
~ Based on the required area, locate a section in your yard that can accommodate the paddock.
~ Using graph paper, sketch a scaled design for the paddock, indicating the dimensions.
Step 2. ~ Using the Web, research the different kinds of fencing available for horses.
~ Points to consider:
• perimeter of the paddock area
• how many strands of the fencing are recommended
• cost per unit
Step 3. ~ Research the approximate number of bales of hay an average horse eats daily and annually.
~ Find the approximate measurements of an average bale of hay.
~ Calculate the volume that you will need to store at least six months’ worth of hay.
Step 4. ~ Present your findings in an organized attractive manner.
Here is an excerpt from Kathleen’s presentation:
What the Research Says
Graham (2000) examined how student self-beliefs affect math performance and whether these self-beliefs change throughout the middle school years. In a 3-year longitudinal study, she found that students describe mathematics as less valuable from the start of grade 6 to the end of grade 8. Students reported diminished engagement and low self-concept regarding their math achievement. Other researchers (Pell, Galton, Steward, Page, & Hargreaves, 2007) found similar results in student attitudes and motivation among adolescents ages 12 to 14 years. Yet can teachers make a difference? Friedel, Cortina, Turner, and Midgley (2007) found that the achievement goals emphasized in mathematics by the teacher and parent predicted children’s personal goals and self-efficacy.
MyEducationLab: Your Turn
Begin by investigating other formative assessment approaches. Go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Assessment. Then read the articles entitled “Making Benchmark Testing Work” and “Using Data to Differentiate Instruction.” After reading these two articles, be prepared to share your answers to the following questions: Describe two ways that teachers might assess student knowledge prior to the beginning of instruction. Which assessment approaches would you prefer to use and why?
Next view the artifacts entitled “Science Fiction Book Project (Science 6–8)” and “Colonial Economies (Social Studies 6–8)” in the Assessment section and select one artifact to explore in depth. Answer the questions associated with that artifact.
In order for a special educator to assist a student with a disability in preparing to participate in district- or statewide assessments, special educators must first become informed of any district- and statewide assessments that students take, including the grade levels at which the assessments are given. Special educators should then review examples of test items, including not only the content but also the types of questions that are asked. For example, questions in the mathematics section may not require the student to actually calculate the answer but only to describe the steps that would be used to find the answer. This way of responding may be very different from the response that is expected of the student in the general education classroom or resource room.
Examining the assessment also includes looking at the figures and diagrams involved. If a student receives specialized instruction in a content area covered by the assessment, the special educator must be sure that the student is familiar with and has opportunities to interpret information displayed in figures and diagrams. This does not mean that special educators take valuable instruction time to teach to the test, but, rather, that they expose students to similar experiences within the context of the curriculum.
Students with disabilities frequently experience difficulties in taking quizzes and exams or large-scale achievement tests, which may lead to diminished self-confidence and lower expectations on test performance. In addition, students with disabilities may miss the explanations general educators provide other students in the classroom who are preparing to take the district- or statewide assessment. To ensure that all students have the same access to information about the assessment, the special educator must work closely with the general educator to see what information is presented in class. Next, the special educator discusses and reviews the information with the student with a disability. When students in the general education classroom have opportunities to take practice tests, the special educator needs to be aware of scheduling so that a student with a disability will have those opportunities as well.
Sometimes educators use classroom discussions, demonstrations, or practice tests to teach students test-taking strategies. These strategies may include previewing the test times, organizing the time spent on each section of the test, or following specific rules in answering a test item. For example, students are taught that they should answer only questions in which they can eliminate two of the five possible answers. Later chapters elaborate on how to teach test-taking strategies.
Finally, special educators can talk with students about the test, encouraging them to develop confidence and realistic expectations. For example, a teacher can explain, “On the mathematics section, you will find some questions that seem relatively easy to you. Other questions may require more thought, and you will need to follow the steps to solving problems that we have learned in class. Because this assessment is designed for a large number of students, you will find some questions that you don’t know how to do. Don’t spend time worrying about these.”
Figure 5.8
summarizes how special educators help students with disabilities prepare for district and statewide assessments.
Figure 5.8 How special educators help students with disabilities prepare for district- and statewide assessments
Research to Practice
Large-Scale and High-Stakes Assessment
Federal legislation, including IDEA and No Child Left Behind, requires that all students, both with and without disabilities, participate in large-scale assessments. Many advocates view these requirements as equal opportunity and access for students with disabilities (National Center on Educational Outcomes, 2003). Analyzing results from large-scale assessments such as districtwide assessment of student achievement can help improve teaching, learning, and equality of educational opportunity (Heubert & Hauser, 1999). Educators analyze these results to monitor student achievement in reading, mathematics, and other areas of the curriculum. They also use the results to make improvements in the districtwide curriculum. These assessments measure how well all students—both with and without disabilities—are meeting curriculum standards.
But sometimes large-scale assessments include a high-stakes component.
High-stakes assessment
is the process of using test information, such as scores, to make significant decisions about individuals. These decisions have important consequences for each student. A student’s scores can be used in making decisions about tracking or assigning a student to a particular level. A student may be promoted to the next grade or retained in the same grade for another year. Sometimes a school uses high-stakes assessment scores to determine which students will receive high school diplomas.
Because accountability is becoming more important at the national, state, and local school district levels, large-scale assessment results may trigger rewards for schools and staff when student scores are high; other schools may receive sanctions when student scores are below expected levels. These consequences have generated much controversy as to whether students with disabilities should be included in the scoring; many educators do not want to be held accountable for students who do not reach expected levels (National Center on Educational Outcomes, 2003).
Some research suggests that students with disabilities tend to score lower on large-scale assessments than students without disabilities. For example, during field testing of the New York State Regents Comprehensive Examination in English, researchers found that students with disabilities scored roughly one standard deviation below students without disabilities and did very poorly on open-ended-response questions (Koretz & Hamilton, 2001).
Some evidence suggests that in order to ensure that their students do well on these tests, teachers change the curriculum based on the assessment and spend time teaching to the test content and format (Swain, 2006). Instruction may involve reteaching of skills as well as teaching specific strategies for students to use. Much research remains to be completed concerning the effects of high-stakes assessment, instruction, and students with disabilities.
Questions for Reflection
1. What information is available from your state department of education regarding statewide assessments and students with disabilities?
2. How have large-scale assessments affected the work of special educators?
Snapshot: Mariah and Assistive Technology
Mariah is an eighth-grade student who has cerebral palsy and a learning disability that affects her written language and organizational skills. Like many of her classmates, she completes all her writing assignments using her laptop and word-processing software. However, for Mariah, the technology is essential because her learning disability affects her ability to write legibly. Word processing allows her to record her ideas and display the information with adequate spacing between words and lines so that she can read what she wrote more easily. Tools such as a spell checker help her identify words that she has difficulty spelling.
When her IEP team met earlier in the year, they discussed Mariah’s participation on the statewide assessment for all eighth-grade students in the school district. After careful consideration, her team decided that Mariah will need to use her laptop and word processing, the same accommodations that she is using in the general education classroom, when she participates in the districtwide assessment in the spring. The IEP team facilitator noted this decision on Mariah’s IEP.
Laptops and software are not the only AT devices that support the participation of students with disabilities in taking district- and statewide assessments. Depending on a student’s needs, the IEP team may decide that a student needs one or more AT devices. Some examples include the following:
•
Pencil grip:
supports and helps a student maintain a correct grasp on a pencil or marking pen
•
Place finder:
marks the current line of text (A ruler is an inexpensive place finder.)
•
Mask:
blocks out additional material on the page (A page-length piece of light cardboard with a window cut out to view a section of text is an inexpensive mask.) Some software programs have a masking option that the user selects, such as to view one sentence or paragraph at a time. The masking option blocks out other text on the screen so that the student is not distracted and can focus on the relevant text.
•
Electronic dictionary:
allows the user to type in a word and select an option to hear the word spoken, to hear the definition, or to find a word with a similar meaning
Figure 5.9
Standards for teacher competence in educational assessment of students
Source: From Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of Students, by the American Federation of Teachers, National Council on Measurement in Education, and the National Education Association, 1990.
Because assessment is closely linked to instruction, special educators have an obligation to meet the standards for teacher competence in educational assessment. Developed by several professional organizations (American Federation of Teachers, National Council on Measurement in Education, & National Education Association, 1990), these professional standards describe the skills and knowledge that educators should have regarding assessment practices. Figure 5.9 illustrates these educational assessment standards for all educators. In becoming skilled in assessment, beginning teachers learn about various assessment approaches and their advantages and limitations. They learn how to use assessment to make instructional decisions and how to communicate the results to students and their parents.
Summary
• Contemporary views focus on high-quality assessments to provide the foundation for planning effective instruction.
• Special educators can select from a variety of assessment approaches to identify a student’s areas of instructional need and to monitor student progress in acquiring new skills and knowledge.
• Federal mandates require that all students including students with disabilities participate in assessment of academic progress at specific grade levels.
• Professional standards and ethical considerations hold special educators accountable during assessment procedures.
Previous section
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Extending Learning
1. Consider the various assessment approaches discussed in this chapter. Have you experienced any of these approaches as a student? Select two of the approaches and describe their advantages and disadvantages for you as a learner.
2. Working with a small group of colleagues, develop a set of 10 selected-response and 10 constructed-response questions for the first few chapters of this book. Which types of questions were easier to develop? Exchange your teacher-developed test with that of another group and answer the questions. What were some of the difficulties that you experienced? Score your test. Do you think the scoring system was reliable? What suggestions do you have for improvement?
3. The Internet is a rich source of rubrics across the curriculum. Select an area that is of interest to you and use a search engine to locate examples of rubrics. Print out a copy of one of the rubrics and analyze its components. Do you think that it is a well-developed rubric for that curriculum area? Why or why not?
4. Contact a special education administrator to obtain a copy of a CBA. Review the assessment to determine the curriculum content that is assessed. What question formats are used? How many types of response formats are used?
5. A local parent organization has asked you to make a presentation about the portfolios that students in your class are developing. Some of the parents are concerned about validity and reliability issues. Prepare an explanation of how you will address their concerns.
6. What are some of the ways schools are coping with confidentiality issues when posting student’s work on the internet? For example, do school personnel create policy statements?
7. What information does your state department of education provide educators and parents regarding district- and statewide assessments, students with disabilities, and the provision of AT?
Answers to the teacher-developed CBA in Figure 5.1:
Questions 1 and 4: Literal-level questions
Questions 2 and 3: Inferential-level questions
Questions 5 and 6: Application-level questions
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
Discuss planning classroom environments to positively affect learning.
Describe how special educators and other team members develop individualized education programs.
Discuss the process of planning and organizing instruction.
Students with and without disabilities are expected to acquire knowledge and skills across all areas of the school curriculum. In fact, IDEA states that students with disabilities must have access to the general education curriculum. Today, special educators must be familiar with the general education curriculum as well as with specialized teaching methods and instructional strategies for students with disabilities. They may join general educators as part of a teaching team, or they may work alone or with other special educators to plan, organize, and implement instruction.
To begin, educators ask questions about the students with whom they will be teaching. What do Tony, Tasha, and Juanita know? In planning and organizing instruction, special educators begin by assessing the academic needs of students with disabilities in the various content areas, such as literacy (including reading and writing), mathematics, science, and social studies. Assessment results help educators to determine where to begin planning and implementing instruction. Chapter 5 examined some of the assessment approaches that educators use to link assessment information with instruction. By using assessment information aligned with the general education curriculum, educators can plan and develop learning activities that deepen students’ understanding and strengthen their skills while facilitating work toward high academic achievement.
Special educators also assess student skills and behaviors. They consider prerequisite skills that a student may need, which is critical before planning instruction. For example, the educator conducts a brief probe to assess whether a student is familiar with the meaning of new vocabulary words. Special educators also assess social skills and behaviors. When students need to build appropriate social skills and positive behaviors, educators plan and organize instructional activities to include a social skills component as part of the academic instruction. For example, an educator may plan a lesson in writing that involves working cooperatively with one or more other students to allow a student with a disability to build positive behaviors in working with peers.
If students require accommodations or modifications, educators review the students’ IEPs to determine what accommodations or modifications are described. If students use AT devices, educators consider how they will use the devices during assessment, instruction, and learning activities. Careful planning and organizing of instruction create successful learning opportunities for all students.
Planning and organizing instruction for students with disabilities begins with knowing the characteristics of learners, what they know, and what they can do. Chapters 2 and 3 discussed the characteristics of students, their abilities, and their diverse needs. Chapter 5 discussed the assessment of students to answer questions about their achievement, skills, and behaviors. This chapter discusses how teachers use assessment information to plan instruction and organize learning experiences.
6.1 Classroom Environments
Each classroom consists of various environments—physical, social, and learning—that must be considered in planning instruction. The physical environment consists of the space and furnishings that make up the classroom. The social environment comprises the everyday activities, interactions, and relationships that exist in the classroom and their impact on learning. The learning environment consists of the content of the instruction, the methods and instructional strategies that a teacher uses, the learning strategies that a student uses, and the ways the student demonstrates progress and achievement.
Physical Environment
As we discussed in Chapter 1, special educators work in various settings, such as general education classrooms, resource rooms, special-purpose schools, and other places. The physical environment for learning has received considerable emphasis in regard to students with disabilities. For example, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) ensures that all public classrooms are physically accessible to students with disabilities. But simply creating ramps and wide doorways is not enough; students must have access to meaningful instruction and learning activities.
To participate fully in learning activities, students should have physical access to appropriate classroom materials and equipment. For example, a visitor to Mario Stefani’s social studies class observes students working in small groups using a variety of materials. One group of four students works together using laptops, whereas another group uses graph paper, pens, colored pencils, and various small cardboard shapes. Tony, a student with mental retardation, is an active participant in another group of four students who are using wooden forms to create a model of the social structure of an ancient society. The teacher frequently plans various small-group learning activities involving hands-on use of materials that are stored in accessible locations. In his classroom, small tables are placed throughout the room for small-group work.
Additional considerations in the physical environment include lighting, temperature, distractions, and noise level. The teacher should adjust lighting so that projectors and computer screens are free from glare, which can make reading difficult. The teacher should also check that room displays are not visually distracting. For example, hanging mobiles help a room look attractive, but materials that are visually stimulating may be distracting to some learners. When possible, the teacher arranges seating away from a door, bulletin board, window, or other areas that could distract these students. To create a positive physical environment, the teacher monitors the noise level, making sure that no student work group is loud enough to distract students in other groups. Figure 6.1 illustrates a teacher-made form for observing the physical environment.
Special educators create positive social environments for students.
Social Environment
Establishing positive relationships with peers and teachers and building a school community are important components of the educational program for all students. Yet, for many students with disabilities, these relationships may not develop. Students with disabilities in fourth and fifth grades report that they felt lonely at school (Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2000). Murray and Greenberg (2001) found that students with disabilities in fifth and sixth grades are more dissatisfied with their relationships with teachers and establish poorer bonds with school than students without disabilities.
Research studies such as these suggest that special educators today must plan ways of creating positive social environments for students with disabilities while planning interventions to strengthen relationships between students with and without disabilities. In fact, Hunt (2000) found that teachers were the driving force for the unification of general education and special education programs. These teachers worked together to develop needed curricular adaptations and social supports, often coteaching in the classroom. They implemented a social curriculum and conflict-resolution procedures. They respected and valued all students and, in return, expected all students to respect others. Successful teachers also encourage students to attempt new and difficult tasks and to take learning risks. Teachers hold high expectations for all students, and students’ attempts are valued. Figure 6.2 illustrates a teacher-made form for observing the social environment.
Figure 6.1 Observing the physical environment
Source: From Assessment of Children and Youth with Special Needs (3rd ed.), by L. G. Cohen and L. J. Spenciner. Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Figure 6.2 Observing the social environment
Source: From Assessment of Children and Youth with Special Needs (3rd ed.), by L. G. Cohen and L. J. Spenciner. Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Learning Environment
As noted previously, the classroom learning environment includes the content of instruction, the instructional strategies that the teacher employs, the learning strategies that students use, and the methods students use to demonstrate progress and achievement. Students bring diverse needs, skills, and abilities to the classroom. How can learning experiences be meaningful and relevant for each student? How can teachers help every student achieve high academic standards? Teachers frequently plan and organize instruction across more than one content area to help students make learning connections. For example, one team of teachers planned an integrated unit in literacy, science, and social studies. Students broadened their understanding of the 1800s not only by studying historical events but also by participating in and writing about activities that illustrate the way of life during that period. They conducted research to learn how people dressed and what foods they ate. They created replicas of simple machines that people used and learned how they worked.
In planning an integrated unit, teachers frequently embed the student’s IEP goals and objectives within lesson plans and teaching activities. Let us return to Tony, the boy with mental retardation whom we met earlier. When planning instructional activities for Tony and the other students, Nelson Barnes, the social studies teacher, decided to design activities that would involve small-group work. Encouraging students to work and learn together enables them to grasp concepts of earlier societies in which work was interdependent. For Tony, learning to work with peers is not only important for understanding these concepts but is also part of his IEP. One of his goals is to increase his skills in working cooperatively with peers. Learning activities that involve both individual and group work support the diverse abilities that students bring to the classroom.
In a report that analyzed how planning instruction to meet a wide range of student abilities and standards-based curricula affects students with disabilities, Jorgensen (1997) found that several essential questions challenge and support students both with and without disabilities. Some of these questions include: What is the central unit, problem, or question? What will interest students—for example, serve as a unit “grabber” or kick-off activity? What are the learning experiences? What assessment approaches can be used? What are the culminating projects? Educators must consider many questions such as these in planning and organizing the learning environment. Figure 6.3 illustrates a teacher-made form for considering the learning environment.
Planning and organizing instruction for students with disabilities involves working closely with general education teachers and the general education curriculum so that all students can achieve high standards. For example, Raphael Suazo, the special education teacher, meets regularly with the classroom teachers to consult and coordinate education planning for Tony. Tony participates in the general education classes for social studies and science and receives specially designed instruction for mathematics and language arts in the resource room. Raphael, who majored in mathematics with a concentration in special education, is responsible for delivering mathematics instruction; another special educator, who is also highly qualified but in English and language arts, teaches an intensive English course for Tony and a small group of other students. As with each student in the high school, Tony is expected to work toward high achievement in every academic area.
Figure 6.3 Observing the learning environment
Source: Excerpts from Assessment of Children and Youth with Special Needs (3rd ed.), by L. G. Cohen and L. J. Spenciner. Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
Physical, Social, and Learning Environments
In considering the physical, social, and learning environments, the teacher plans ways to enable students to connect classroom learning with their homes and communities. Learning experiences and instructional activities should be culturally relevant and meaningful. Diversity perspectives should be embedded when planning units of instruction. For example, in planning a unit on nutrition, the teacher plans and organizes instructional activities so students learn about foods from various cultural groups that are part of the community. Meaningful learning experiences, such as inviting students to bring in a recipe from home to create a classroom cookbook, are included in the unit.
Teachers create culturally responsive social environments, too. They arrange collaborative groups to encourage student learning. They work to connect prior experiences with new learning. Students engage in a variety of activities that allow them to move about the classroom. What should a teacher consider in planning and organizing instruction that is effective for all students? After extensive research, the Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence has developed five principles for effective pedagogy that are applicable across K–12 grade levels (Dalton, 1998).
1.
Joint productive activity
The teacher designs instructional activities requiring student collaboration to accomplish a joint product…. [The teacher] organizes students in a variety of groupings, such as by friendship, mixed academic ability, language, project, or interests, to promote interaction. [The teacher] plans with students how to work in groups…. (p. 11)
2.
Developing language and literacy across the curriculum
The teacher listens to students talk about familiar topics such as home and community…. [The teacher] assists written and oral language development through modeling, eliciting, probing, restating, clarifying, questioning, praising, etc., in purposeful conversation and writing. [The teacher] interacts with students in ways that respect students’ preferences for speaking that may be different from the teacher’s, such as wait-time, eye contact, turn-taking, or spotlighting…. [The teacher] encourages students’ use of first and second languages in instructional activities. (p. 17)
3.
Making meaning
Connecting school to students’ lives. The teacher … designs instructional activities that are meaningful to students in terms of local community norms and knowledge…. [The teacher] acquires knowledge of local norms and knowledge by talking to students, parents, or family members, community members, and by reading pertinent documents…. [The teacher] plans jointly with students to design community-based learning activities…. (p. 22)
4.
Teaching complex thinking
The teacher assures that students—for each instructional topic—see the whole picture as a basis for understanding the parts…. [The teacher] designs instructional tasks that advance student understanding to more complex levels…. [The teacher] gives clear, direct feedback about how student performance compares with the challenging standards…. (p. 26)
5.
Teaching through conversation
The teacher … has a clear academic goal that guides conversation with students. [The teacher] ensures that student talk occurs at higher rates than teacher talk…. [The teacher] guides conversation to include students’ views, judgments, and rationales using text evidence and other substantive support…. (p. 30)
Questions for Reflection
1. Consider the students in your community schools. To develop language and literacy across the curriculum (see recommendation 2), what children’s books and folk tales can you locate that would help you in working with these students?
2. To become more knowledgeable about the culture and traditions of the students in your community schools, what online resources would be helpful?
Once the multidisciplinary team determines that a student is eligible for special education services, the IEP team convenes to develop the IEP. The IEP includes specific information about the student’s current level of functioning, strengths, and needs, as illustrated in
Figure 6.4
. The student’s IEP must be completed within 30 days. During the IEP meeting, team members consider a number of questions, such as: Based on the assessment information, what specially designed instruction does the student need? Does the student need any related services? What annual goals need to be developed and aligned with curriculum standards? In considering AT needs, what does the student need to do in the education program that the student is currently unable to do? If the student needs an AT device(s), what AT services are needed? What accommodations are indicated? Does the student need modifications? What would be the most appropriate setting for services? How will we evaluate the specially designed instruction and related services?
According to IDEA, the IEP team is responsible for developing annual goals in each area where special education services will be provided. For example, the team determines that Tasha, a student with a learning disability, requires specially designed instruction in reading, language arts, and mathematics. The team decides that phonemic awareness and phonics instruction for Tasha should occur on a daily basis. Because of her distractibility, team members decide that instruction should be in the resource room with the special educator. She will be included in the general education classroom for language arts and mathematics instruction, receiving one-to-one support from the special education teacher.
Figure 6.4 Tasha’s IEP
Next, the team identifies and agrees on the necessary related services, such as physical therapy, speech and language, and psychological services. Goals and objectives for these services are included in the student’s IEP, too. For Tasha, the team decides that no related services are needed at this time because her needs are solely academic.
The IEP team is responsible for planning the student’s individualized education program.
During the development of the IEP, team members must address how the student will access the general education curriculum and how the student will participate in local and statewide assessments. They consider if the student will require classroom accommodations; if so, they determine which ones are appropriate. In providing accommodations, teachers expect the same level of achievement for students with disabilities as for students without disabilities. Accommodations refer to changes to the education program that do not substantially alter the instructional level, the content of the curriculum, or the assessment criteria; modifications involve changes or adaptations in the education program that alter the level, content, and/or assessment criteria.
For example, because Tasha has difficulty reading material at her grade level, she will need an accommodation regarding her social studies book. Her IEP team will need to determine what this will be. They may consider specialized software that allows Tasha to use her laptop to listen to the text while following along as the text is displayed on the screen. This accommodation provides an alternative format, but the level of difficulty of the assignment is not changed. If the team decides to recommend the specialized software, they will need to arrange training on its use for Tasha and her special education teacher. The general education teacher and the special education teacher must meet weekly to consult and plan additional accommodations, such as breaking long assignments into multiple short ones and providing short-term feedback to support her achievement in the content areas.
The team also considers classroom modifications that the student will need. Modifications decrease the difficulty of the task or limit the number of required tasks. When a student with a disability needs modifications, teachers make changes in the student’s expected level of achievement. In Tasha’s case, no modifications are necessary. However, another student who needs modifications might require the support of a teacher aide who would read the social studies text aloud, substituting easier vocabulary and interpreting some of the content.
When accommodations and modifications are made for a student during instruction, the same accommodations and modifications must be made during assessment of the student’s progress. In Tasha’s case, her teacher will arrange for Tasha to use her laptop and specialized software to complete quizzes in social studies. In the spring, her class will be taking the statewide assessments required by the No Child Left Behind Act. This federal law mandates yearly assessment for all students in Grades 3–8 and at least once during Grades 10–12. As you may recall from Chapter 1, students with disabilities must participate in statewide assessments or the IEP team must identify an alternative assessment(s), according to IDEA. These assessments measure students’ progress toward meeting the standards in each area of the curriculum. Because Tasha uses her laptop and specialized software as a classroom accommodation in reading material for the content areas, she will be allowed to use this software during the online statewide assessment for each subject area except, of course, for reading. This will allow her to participate fully in the statewide assessment along with her classmates.
The IEP team identifies the student’s current level of performance in each area of need. These performance levels provide the basis for the yearly evaluation of the IEP to determine whether the student made progress and continues to require special education and related services. Thus, accurate and complete information is critical. A student’s level of performance should be defined by observable, measurable descriptive information. For example, Tasha’s classroom teacher uses standardized assessment and the classroom curriculum, which is based on the school’s English Language Arts Standards, to provide a description of her present level of performance in reading:
Present Level of Performance: Reading
Tasha’s reading achievement is considerably below that of other students in the class (15th percentile on the districtwide assessment). She lacks strategies for decoding new words. She is unable to summarize what she has read and frequently cannot restate the information.
Tasha’s present level of performance based on the school’s mathematics curriculum standards is described as follows.
Present Level of Performance: Mathematics
1. Demonstrates number concepts 1 to 25
2. Identifies different coin combinations to make 15 cents
3. Uses measurement tools to identify feet and inches
4. Completes patterns (for example: ABAB, ABBA, AABB)
Snapshot: Juanita’s IEP Team Meeting
Juanita is enrolled in Townsend Middle School as a sixth-grade student. Juanita was invited to attend her IEP team meeting and to participate in the decisions that the team would make. Because Juanita has oppositional defiant disorder and mental retardation, team members hoped that by joining the team, Juanita would come to realize the hopes for success that team members held for her.
As the meeting started, the team leader welcomed everyone and asked each person to state his or her name. The team leader then explained that the purpose of the meeting was to discuss Juanita’s progress in school over the past year and to develop a new education plan. The team leader invited Juanita to speak first. “You know I like school, but I don’t like all the work and sometimes teachers are mean,” she quickly shared. The team leader decided to step in and redirect Juanita to think about areas that went well and what supports were helpful for her. The team would use her views to ensure that these successful ideas continued.
Present levels of performance may also describe problem behaviors. For Juanita, the student we just met, behavior continues to be a concern. Her IEP describes her present level of performance as follows.
Present Level of Performance: Behavior
Juanita attends for a short period of time, generally no longer than 3 minutes, during teacher-directed activities. She is argumentative with other students and is quick to settle disputes by pushing and hitting others.
Juanita also has mental retardation with moderate to severe disabilities in cognitive and adaptive skills. Her present level of performance in adaptive skills is described by the team.
Present Level of Performance: Adaptive (Self-Help) Skills
Juanita takes full responsibility for adaptive skills in the area of self-care. She needs help in creating and following a schedule and in other areas of self-direction and social skills. Her current attention span is about 5 minutes.
Annual goals describe what the student will accomplish during the school year while receiving specially designed instruction and related services. They address the student’s academic achievement toward the district content standards in the general education classroom as well as social and behavioral goals. Because annual goals provide an estimate of what the student will know and be able to do, the team considers several factors in developing accurate goals. The factors that help determine what a student will achieve include the student’s past performance and current level of performance as well as the student’s interests, abilities, skills, goals, and motivation.
Team members develop annual goals in academic areas and in other areas, if needed. For example, they may develop goals in behavior and social skills, in communication, in adaptive behavior, or in fine and gross motor domains. Tasha’s team developed the following annual goals:
• Tasha will demonstrate increased phonemic awareness and the ability to read fluently and accurately within a grade-appropriate level span.
• Tasha will use comprehension strategies to understand text within a grade-appropriate level span.
• Tasha will use the writing process, with the emphasis on the development of the central idea, for a variety of audiences.
• Tasha will demonstrate number, operation, and measurement concepts commensurate with the third-grade mathematics curriculum by the end of the program year.
• Tasha will improve her personal social skills by demonstrating positive behaviors and working cooperatively with peers by the end of the program year.
Juanita’s IEP includes goals in adaptive skills as well as academic goals. Her team identified the following goal in adaptive skills:
Juanita will increase responsibility and attention skills to age-appropriate levels by June 20.
Short-term objectives describe specific steps that enable the student to meet the annual goal. IDEA requires that the IEP team write short-term objectives only for students with individualized education programs that include alternative achievement standards and alternative assessments linked to these standards. Tasha’s team synthesizes all the information and determines that she will be able to follow grade-level achievement standards with in-class support, accommodations, and specialized instruction in the resource room. However, based on all the information presented, Juanita’s team decides that she needs alternative achievement standards and alternative assessments. Her IEP will include short-term objectives. When a short-term objective is written, the following areas are included:
1. The behavior, which is described in terms that can be observed (level of proficiency)
2. The criteria for successful performance (degree of accuracy that is required)
3. The method of evaluating the behavior
4. The time period for review, which is typically done on an annual basis.
Special educators use knowledge of a student’s short-term objectives to plan and implement instruction. Juanita’s teacher believes that she will need classroom supports, such as prompting or cueing, to help her achieve her annual goal.
•
Annual goal:
Juanita will increase her responsibility and attention skills to age-appropriate levels by June 20.
For students, short-term objectives are those toward which they work. Let us take a closer look at these objectives.
Short-term objectives
1. Given prior verbal/physical prompts, Juanita will make a successful transition from one activity to another six out of six times during the school day for five consecutive days, as measured by teacher observation. To be reviewed: March 20.
2. Juanita will follow classroom rules, with no more than one daily reminder, for two consecutive weeks, as measured by event recording. To be reviewed: June 20.
Short-term objectives allow the teacher to describe, observe, and measure performance. For example, the terms make a successful transition and follow classroom rules describe behaviors that can be observed. Words such as know, understand, or learn should be avoided because they are not specific in terms of describing behaviors.
The behaviors described in Juanita’s objectives reflect the fact that, given specially designed instruction, she can achieve without prompting from her teacher. Her objectives also indicate that she will follow classroom rules expected of all students. Juanita will accomplish her objectives with the support of teaching strategies such as prompting and fading. Eventually, her teacher will expect Juanita to demonstrate these behaviors independently, and her subsequent IEP short-term objectives will reflect this achievement.
Short-term objectives provide descriptions of behaviors and criteria for successful performance so that teachers, family members, and the student know how the annual goal can be achieved. Short-term objectives include the method that will be used to evaluate the behavior and the time period for review. Knowledge of short-term objectives helps the teachers and student understand what needs to be accomplished to meet the goals. Objectives help teachers plan and monitor individualized instruction. Finally, by using terms to describe what a student should know and be able to do, the teachers, parents, and student can readily determine whether the objectives are being met.
Special education teachers can ensure that students with disabilities have opportunities to develop higher-order thinking skills by including the skills in writing IEP goals and objectives. For example, teachers foster skills such as applying, analyzing, or synthesizing by encouraging students to work together in classroom communities of practice (
Wenger, 1998
). By studying the preceding student goals and objectives, can you determine what higher-order thinking skills the teachers are encouraging?
Snapshot: Juanita’s IEP Team Meeting Revisited
Juanita’s team members use IEP software to plan, organize, and manage special education forms and paperwork, decreasing time-consuming, repetitive tasks. The software incorporates easy-to-use data entry, report writing, and form-generation capabilities. After Juanita’s information is inserted in the onscreen form, the program can check all areas of a completed IEP to ensure that the information is complete and meets federal and state guidelines.
Using the software, the team creates customized reports for Juanita’s parents, teachers, and related service providers who work with Juanita. In addition, the software can check Juanita’s record and provide an alert on when to issue meeting notifications. The program tracks Juanita’s progress on IEP goals and objectives. Over time, software can track a student through the entire special education process from initial referral to evaluation of the student’s program.
After the IEP team completes the student’s IEP, the special education teacher begins planning and organizing instruction, usually working with one or more general education teachers. Planning instruction involves acquiring a broad knowledge base of content. When educators first enter the classroom, they will have taken many college courses that cover the content to be taught. In fact, IDEA requires that all educators be highly qualified in the subject area that they will teach. Having depth of knowledge in one or more specific content areas is critical to planning instruction because K–12 curriculum is based on
content standards
. These standards describe the knowledge and skills that students should know, and they provide educators with a blueprint for teaching and learning. Becoming familiar with content standards provides beginning educators with a broad knowledge base from which to plan instruction. Planning instruction for students both with and without disabilities also involves identifying where instruction should begin (linking assessment with instruction); planning large blocks of instruction (units) and smaller blocks, lessons, and instructional activities; using accommodations or modifications; integrating the student’s AT device(s) into the classroom activities; and considering student grouping. In the following sections, we look at each of these areas in more detail.
In planning instruction, general education and special education teachers use content standards and performance indicators. Content standards, sometimes referred to as curriculum standards (language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies, for example), describe the knowledge and skills that students should know.
Performance indicators
describe a level of achievement and indicate what students should be able to demonstrate.
Outcomes must be achievable for all students; at the same time, teachers need to maintain high expectations. Students come to the classroom with a range of strengths, attitudes, abilities, skills, and motivation levels. The diversity of their experiences and needs must be addressed by teachers and the IEP team. Failure to give students access to standards-based education violates the No Child Left Behind Act, as well as the Americans with Disabilities Act, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, and the IDEA (
Ordover, 2001
).
Let’s examine an example of one state’s content standards in algebra. The standard for algebra states, “Students use symbols to represent or model quantities, patterns, and relationships and use symbolic manipulation to evaluate expressions and solve equations. Students solve problems using symbols, tables, graphs, and verbal rules choosing the most effective representation and converting among representations.” For students pre-K to Grade 2, the performance indicator is: “Students understand how to represent quantities as simple expressions using addition and subtraction.” One of the descriptors is
Research to Practice
Coteaching in Inclusive Classrooms
Coteaching in inclusive classrooms provides a way of organizing and supporting the social and learning environments. Usually one special educator is paired with one regular classroom teacher to support the inclusion of students with disabilities. One research group (
Scruggs, Maastropieri, & McDuffie, 2007
) conducted a meta-analysis of the research to determine how coteaching is being implemented, teachers’ perceptions of coteaching, benefits, and problems encountered. After analyzing 32 original studies, these researchers found that teachers generally report benefits from coteaching. Special educators report that they increase knowledge in the content areas, whereas general educators report that they learn skills in behavior management and curriculum adaptation.
Additional research findings indicated that coteaching provides a positive social model for students. Students without disabilities gain skills in cooperation, for example; exposure to peer models increased positive behaviors for students with disabilities. Both groups of students mentioned the positive effects of extra attention and assistance from two teachers.
For educators, the most prominent model of coteaching employed was “one teach, one assist.” Most frequently, the general education teacher assumed the role of instructor and the special educator assumed the role of assistant, helping individual students as necessary. In spite of the teachers’ positive perspectives on coteaching, the authors found that practices that have been shown to be effective were rarely used. These practices included hands-on curriculum materials, mnemonics, strategy instruction, organizational skills training, self-monitoring, test-taking skills, and so on.
Many of the teachers participating in these studies discussed the need for students with disabilities to have at least a minimum academic and behavioral skill level. The meta-analysis found that in many studies difficult students interfered with coteaching efforts. Some coteaching groups were able to cope with these problem behaviors, but others were not.
For coteaching to be successful, the studies identified a number of helpful factors. These included administrative support and commitment to supporting inclusion, training for coteaching, and planning time.
Questions for Reflection
1. What are some ways in which special educators and general educators might work together in an inclusive classroom? What might be some benefits? What barriers might need to be addressed?
2. How do parents react to coteaching?
• Show that any quantity can be represented by multiple equivalent expressions where each represents the quantity 10. (
Maine Department of Education, 2007
)
Thus the student might use 1-inch cubes to represent the following:
4 + 6 = 10; 3 + 7 = 10; 1+ 9 = 10
The performance indicator is written in general terms so that teachers can create a variety of learning experiences for children to demonstrate what they can do. In general, individual state content standards reflect the standards developed by the professional organizations listed in
Table 6.1
In designing lessons and learning activities, special educators and general educators keep content standards in mind as they plan and organize instruction. Because standards are so important to educators, each state has developed a Web site with information about curriculum and instruction, including standards by subject and grade-level area. Knowing how to locate this information and how it is organized helps beginning teachers. Developing Educational Standards is an extensive Web site that provides links to each state department of education and individual state standards.
Table 6.1 Curriculum Standards Developed by Professional Organizations
Curriculum Area
Web Search Key Word/URL
English language arts
National Council of Teachers of English http://www.ncte.org/
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics http://www.nctm.org/
Geography
National Council for Geographic Education http://www.ncge.org/
National Science Teachers Association http://www.nsta.org/
National Council for the Social Studies http://www.ncss.org/
International Society for Technology in Education
http://
www.iste.org
/
Planning units involves designing instruction, a topic addressed by contemporary models of instruction. Perhaps two of the most well known models, differentiated instruction (
Tomplinson,
2005a
;
2005b
) and understanding by design (
Wiggins & McTighe, 2005
), describe similar steps for teachers to follow. According to these models, planning units of instruction involves a process called backward planning. Accordingly, teachers first begin planning a unit by considering the key concepts that students should acquire or master when the unit concludes. This will ensure that students gain understandings that will serve as building blocks to other knowledge. Usually teachers use state content standards, discussed earlier, in considering these key concepts, or “big ideas.” For example, a middle school teacher identified the following key concepts and essential questions in the area of health education:
• What is healthful eating?
• To what extent are you a healthful eater?
• Could a healthy diet for one person be unhealthy for another? (
Tomlinson & McTighe, 2007
)
After identifying key concepts, teachers articulate specific knowledge and skills that students will need for effective performance. Some of the knowledge and skills the middle school teacher identified were as follows:
Knowledge: Students will know
• key nutrition terms (protein, fat, calorie, carbohydrate, cholesterol, etc.);
• specific health problems caused by poor nutrition (e.g., diabetes, heart disease).
Skills: Students will be able to
• read and interpret nutrition information on food labels.
Source: (Tomlinson & McTighe, 2007)
Teachers then decide on how to indicate what students know and are able to do. For example, a teacher might consider the performance tasks that would indicate that students can apply what they have learned. The middle school teacher decided that one of the performance tasks would be to have the students create a pamphlet so younger students could learn more about healthy eating.
Next, teachers plan instruction and learning experiences. Teachers think about how they will encourage students to demonstrate knowledge, skills, and complex thinking. Planning instruction includes not only content that reflects facts and concepts but also content that allows students to develop complex or higher order thinking and to demonstrate understanding by, for example, analyzing and evaluating information. Teachers use space, materials, student groupings, and varied activities to maximize student success (
Tomlinson & McTighe, 2006
).
To help keep in mind the “big picture” of planning a unit, some teachers prefer to work with a graphic organizer that illustrates the unit (
Figure 6.5
). Other teachers often find that a form including each component of the process works best (
Figure 6.6
). Which do you prefer?
Figure 6.5 Graphic organizer illustrating planning a unit
The Internet contains a vast array of resources for planning instruction. Educators can design a unit or an individual lesson by accessing video, text, audio, or software from the World Wide Web, or they can locate examples of challenging classroom activities, view peer-reviewed materials such as student projects, and learn about various teaching methods and instructional strategies by watching video clips. For additional information you can begin by visiting one or more of the following sites:
•
PBS Teacher Source.
This site contains more than 4,000 free lesson plans and activities in arts and literature, health and fitness, mathematics, science, and social studies (
http://www.pbs.org/teachers
).
•
ISTE K–12 Teacher Resources.
The International Society for Technology in Education maintains a vast array of curriculum resources, including art, biology, chemistry, environment, economics, foreign languages, general science, geology, history, language arts, mathematics, music, physical education, physics, social studies, and space (http://www.iste.org/).
•
The Teacher’s Corner: Multidisciplinary Classroom Activities:
This site, created by NASA, contains a variety of lesson plans and other resource materials, primarily for educators at the middle and secondary levels (
http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/teachers/teachers_corner.html
).
•
Federal Resources for Educational Excellence.
This site is constantly being updated with teaching ideas and resources. Teachers may search for resources in various curriculum areas, including arts, educational technology, foreign languages, health and safety, language arts, mathematics, physical education, science, social studies, and vocational education (
http://www.free.ed.gov/
).
Figure 6.6 Worksheet for unit planning
Linking assessment to instruction involves gathering, synthesizing, and analyzing information about students’ achievements, skills, and behaviors before planning instructional activities. The assessment process can be informal and does not depend on standardized assessments. The previous chapters discussed the many different assessment approaches educators use, including curriculum-based and criterion-referenced assessments, probes, and student interviews. Using several of these approaches allows educators to gather specific information, not only about what the student knows and will do but also about the knowledge, skills, and behaviors that the student has not yet attained. After the information is obtained, the educator must synthesize and analyze it.
Bloom and his colleagues developed a means of conceptualizing ways of knowing along a range from basic recall of knowledge to higher order thinking (
Bloom, 1954
). Other authors (
Anderson et al., 2001
) revised this taxonomy to allow teachers to plan and assess learning in powerful ways. One fifth-grade teacher, Susannah Modin, involved this revised taxonomy to help her students use technology to develop deeper understandings of similarities and differences between two countries (
Cochran & Conklin with Modin, 2007
). Susannah developed a multicultural pen pal experience to help students become more familiar with Finland and its people. To begin, she posted a survey on the school’s Web site asking students various questions about Finland. She then designed learning activities that included links for students to visit to read about Finnish life and view virtual tours of Finland, and she facilitated communication among pen pals.
Figure 6.7
and
Figure 6.8
illustrate how Susannah might assess student achievement after completing the unit. The first figure illustrates what type of questions that Susannah might ask in using Bloom’s taxonomy; the second figure illustrates more opportunities for students to demonstrate higher level thinking.
By linking assessment to instruction, educators can begin planning instruction that allows students to build on previous knowledge, much as Susannah did with her students. Ensuring that students with a disabilities have access to the general education curriculum and the same standards as students without disabilities is part of the special education process. The following section describes this process.
Figure 6.7 Questions in the original taxonomy
Source: D. Cochran and J. Conklin with S. Modin. (2007). New Bloom: Transforming Learning. Learning and Leading with Technology, 34(5), 24–25.
Figure 6.8 Questions in the new taxonomy
Source: D. Cochran and J. Conklin with S. Modin. (2007). New Bloom: Transforming Learning. Learning and Leading with Technology, 34(5), 24–25.
Instructional activities and learning experiences enable students to integrate new learning with prior knowledge and experiences. During the planning process, both special and general educators keep content standards in mind, aligning instruction with standards and performance indicators. One team of educators developed a learning activity they called “Alphabet and Animal Problem” (
Maine Mathematics & Science Alliance, 2001–2003
) that focuses on understanding algebra concepts.
Figure 6.9
illustrates the student activity and the teacher notes.
Figure 6.9 Fourth-grade learning activity assigned with algebra content standard and performance indicator
Source: Maine Assessment Portfolio,
Maine Mathematics and Science Alliance, 2001–2003
, Maine Department of Education. Used with permission.
To accommodate students with a wide range of abilities in the classroom, Tomlinson (2005a; 2005b) describes how to differentiate instruction. There are several general guidelines:
• Assessment is most useful when it comes at the beginning of the unit and along the way in the unit.
• Lessons for all students should emphasize critical and creative thinking that require them to apply the meaning to new ideas.
• Lessons for all students should be engaging.
• There should be a balance between student-selected and teacher-assigned tasks and working arrangements (
Tomlinson, 2005b
, 19–20).
Figure 6.10
illustrates the range of activities in a differentiated classroom. During whole-class activities the teacher begins with a preassessment of knowledge and then introduces the key concepts. The teacher might prepare a one- or two-page summary of ideas in the unit or a concept map. Key vocabulary, as well as essential questions related to the topic of study, could be included. These materials would be helpful to students both with and without disabilities.
Students work in small groups of from two to four people. During this time they may participate in directed reading. For example, the teacher can highlight critical passages in the text so that students can focus on the key information rather than being getting discouraged by the amount of reading required. During individualized activities, students might set specific goals, draw time lines, and then work toward their goals, assessing their own progress along the way. This is helpful when students have particular interests or when they’ve seen other classmates working on similar activities.
Figure 6.10 Range of activities in a differentiated classroom
Source: How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms (2nd ed., p. 25), by
C. A. Tomlinson, 2005
, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Pearson. Reprinted with permission.
Student-teacher conferences may include developing a learning contract with a student to help the student work more independently. Or, a conference may consist of discussing a product assignment that integrates IEP goals. Teachers are flexible in how students demonstrate attainment but encourage rich products of achievement.
Organizing instruction involves paying attention to details.
Teachers can also consider the use of AT, student groupings, and materials that will provide opportunities for students to succeed. One special educator developed a form to facilitate planning and organizing instruction, as illustrated in
Figure 6.11
She also brainstormed a list of ways that students could access information through a variety of sources, including print materials, digital text, video, and audiotapes (
Figure 6.12
).
Sometimes educators structure learning activities to tap the special capabilities of technology. Harris (
2000–2001
) suggests a framework for planning that includes telecollaborative activities (interpersonal exchange), teleresearch activities (information collection and analysis), and sequences of student actions (problem solving,
Figure 6.13
). Within each of these areas, an educator can plan to use various activity structures that emphasize different skills. For example, an educator who is planning learning activities that will build skills in writing can examine the activities described under interpersonal exchange. Which activity in Figure 6.13 would you select if you wanted to create enthusiasm for student writing?
A student’s IEP describes the AT devices and services that the student needs. Planning instruction involves considering how a student can use AT in the classroom to work more efficiently or more effectively. Recall that specialized software allows a student with reading problems to listen to material that has been scanned into a computer, such as a supplemental booklet or teacher handout. For a student who has difficulty organizing information, specialized software such as Kidspiration and Inspiration provide areas for brainstorming and creating outlines. For a student who has limited keyboarding skills, speech-to-text software allows the student to create written text by speaking. For a student who has difficulty spelling and producing a piece of writing, word processing with word prediction provides word prompts and requires fewer keystrokes.
Figure 6.11 Specially designed instruction plan
Figure 6.12 Using alternative formats
Figure 6.13 Specific activity structures categorized by genre and learning processes
Source: Reprinted from Learning & Leading with Technology, Vol. 28, No. 4, copyright © 2000–2001, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 800-336-5191 (U.S. and Canada) or 541-302-3777 (lnternational),
iste@iste.org
, www.iste.org. All rights reserved. Reprint permission does not constitute an endorsement by ISTE.
Planning for integrating AT involves checking that the specialized software and necessary hardware are installed and working. Planning also includes considering how the student will use the AT device during instructional activities or learning experiences. In later chapters, we discuss specific examples of AT and how teachers plan instruction that allows students with disabilities to use these technology tools.
All students should have opportunities to work collaboratively with others. Sometimes educators plan an activity that depends on two students working together, either as partners or one as the tutor and one as the tutee. Or, a teacher might set up a problem-solving partnership with two or three students, a cooperative team with three or four students, or a collaborative group with three to six students (
Table 6.2
). In planning and organizing group work, teachers can enhance the effectiveness of student groups by including these common characteristics:
Work done in groups is challenging and meaningful. The teacher is always actively involved in the students’ learning process, serving as a resource person, questioner, guide, evaluator, and coach. Learning goals and timelines are clearly understood by the students and monitored by the teacher. Groups are heterogeneous, and all students are actively involved. Cooperation is valued over competition. Students have a sense of being able to accomplish more learning together than they can alone. The group process provides a comfort level for discussion and airing questions. Student interaction and social skills are required, but the purpose of grouping is not primarily social. Group time is not “free time” for student (or teacher). Multiple means of assessment are possible (rubrics, portfolios, quizzes, interviews, presentations, etc.). Evaluation can be of the individual student, of the group, or a combination of these. (
Damian, 2001
, p. 27)
After all the planning, it is time to get ready for students! Final preparation involves attention to many details, such as materials, equipment, outside resources, and room arrangement. The teacher must review the materials that will be needed for instruction and assembles them. Materials must be well organized and labeled. Unless they are potentially dangerous, such as lab materials, they should be easily accessible for student use. If the teacher has not previously used the materials in the planned activity, the teacher should conduct a practice activity with the materials to ensure that the activities will go as planned.
The teacher should check all equipment, such as data projectors and whiteboards, to make sure that everything is working properly. If this is the first time the teacher is using the equipment, a Web site, or software, conducting a practice session will allow the teacher to troubleshoot any problems before using the materials with students. Equipment that must be obtained from the computer lab or resource center should be ordered well in advance. If the learning activity involves devices or software with which some students are not familiar, the teacher will have to organize classroom space so that these students can learn and practice using the materials without disturbing the other students.
Organizing the classroom space is another detail that the teacher needs to consider. If the planned instruction involves small-group work, the teacher must organize work space for the students by combining desks or identifying small classroom tables for use. If the activity involves all the students, the teacher needs to organize seating to promote positive student behaviors. For example, the teacher may plan to separate two students or place a student near one who provides a good role model.
Figure 6.14
illustrates a teacher-created checklist for organizing instruction.
Table 6.2 Using Student Groups to Assist Learning
|
Three Learning Group Strategies |
||
|
Problem-Solving Partnerships |
Cooperative Teams |
Collaborative Groups |
|
Two or three students per group. The duration of group work is short (part of a class period to a few days. The specific task or problem to solve is limited in scope (a single problem or question or a limited set) and is usually a challenge or practice activity for students to apply recent learning. Multiple approaches to solving the problem are encouraged. There is no single “right” way to solve most problems, and all reasonable solutions or answers to the problem are honored. Individual students have an opportunity to explain and discuss their suggested solutions as well as their misconceptions. New understandings are developed by the individual, by the team, and, finally, by the whole class. Group and class discussions (and solutions) provide immediate feedback to the student. |
Three or four students per group. The duration of group work ranges from several days to several weeks. The problem or task is clearly defined by the teacher. A team plan of operation and goals is specified, and teams are highly structured. Each student has a clearly defined role in the team, such as recorder, questioner, reporter. The teacher takes time to teach each student role. Team members share leadership within the framework of specific roles. All team members must contribute or the team cannot progress. (Teams “win or lose together.”) The end product represents the entire team. The team focus is on cooperation as well as on achievement of goals. Awareness of the group process is as important as completing the task. |
Three to six students per group. The duration of group work can be short (days) or longer (weeks or even months). The task or problem is open ended and may cover large amounts of course content. Student roles are flexible and may change throughout the project or assignment. Students observe (and help with) other students’ work, and critique, evaluate, explain, and suggest ways for improvement. Open communication and multiple approaches are emphasized. All students are involved in honest discussion about ideas, procedures, experimental results, gathered information, interpretations, resource materials, and their own or other students’ work. Students are constantly aware of the collaborative communication process as well as the product or goals. They know they can change direction to meet goals. |
Source: Excerpted from “Student Learning Groups That Really Work,” by Carol Damian, 2001, ENC Focus 8(2), pp. 25–29. Reprinted with permission of Eisenhower National Clearinghouse.
Figure 6.14 A teacher-created checklist for organizing instruction
In addition to content and performance standards for students, there are also standards for teachers. The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), the national professional organization for teachers who work with students with disabilities, outlines a set of professional standards that specify knowledge and skill areas for all beginning special educators. The standards cover various topics, including foundations, development and characteristics of learners, individual learning differences, instructional strategies, learning environments and social interactions, language, instructional planning, assessment, professional and ethical practice, and collaboration.
Many colleges use the CEC standards to help future teachers document their developing competencies in their program of study. In fact, some college students develop professional portfolios around the 10 standards. After graduation, the future teacher who seeks to become “highly qualified” may take a national teacher exam, Praxis II Special Education, which has questions covering the 10 CEC standard areas. To learn more about the CEC professional standards for special educators, go to
http://www.cec.sped.org
.
IN PRACTICE
This chapter covers many different aspects of planning and organizing instruction. Working together, educators begin by considering major concepts and understandings that students should acquire or master. They discuss specific knowledge and skills that students will need for effective performance. They identify ways that students will demonstrate their achievement. In addition to achievement, educators also plan for developing communication skills, social interactions, and positive behaviors. Educators assess what students know and are able to do before beginning instruction, while monitoring student progress, and at the end of the unit.
In addition, educators carefully organize the classroom and materials for learning. In the following scenario, we’ll meet special educator Jessie Daigle, who works with students in a resource room. Jessie provides specialized instruction to supplement students’ work in the general education classroom.
Classroom Focus
Jessie began organizing the classroom by surveying the small tables placed throughout the room. She moved several tables further apart so that each small group of students would have enough space to work comfortably. Next, she checked the classroom materials, including three-dimensional models of geometric shapes, colored paper, rulers with easy-to-read markings, and a variety of pencils and erasers. Software on the school server could be accessed by student laptops. Jessie made sure that the software was working and that there were enough materials so that students could make choices in deciding what to use.
Working Toward Solutions
From experience, Jessie knew that having choices increased students’ interest and involvement in learning activities. Earlier she had carefully planned how she would reintroduce the geometry problems the students had difficulty in solving in the general education classroom. Jessie first planned to model the steps in solving the problem with the students and then distribute a handout sheet with the problem-solving steps listed. Next she planned to support small groups of students as they practiced the steps. She also wanted to bring the lesson to a more concrete level and involve the students with hands-on activities during their small-group work.
Well-organized, explicit instruction, closely related to the area of instruction need, along with interesting materials that engage students in learning, provide the specialized instruction required for some students with disabilities to succeed.
What the Research Says
To understand more about different learning environments, researchers (
Bottge et al., 2004
) compared mathematics achievement for middle school students both with and without disabilities under different learning conditions. Teachers of mathematics, special educators, and technology education teachers joined together to plan, develop, and deliver the central concepts embedded in the math and technology education curriculum. The math teacher took the lead in providing the instructional content, and the technology educator developed a motivating project that required students to apply what they were learning. When the special educator realized that some of the students did not know how to solve the math problems, she provided extra instruction in the resource room. The results of this study indicated that the general education classroom was not sufficient to raise academic performance for the four students with disabilities. Three of these students had learning disabilities and the other student was eligible for special education services under the term other health impairment. However, when these students received additional instruction from a skilled special educator, they scored well above the average of their peers without disabilities on the posttest. Throughout this study, the impact of each teacher was clearly evident.
MyEducationLab: Your Turn
How might a teacher create interesting learning activities by using various technologies during instruction? How might a teacher use small groups to support learning? How might a special educator support instruction in the general education classroom? To explore these questions further, go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Instructional Practices and Learning Strategies. Then watch the videos entitled “Middle School Science: Response Cards” and “Middle School Science: Think-Pair-Share.” Next go to the Assessment section and watch the video entitled “Response System.” Be prepared to discuss your ideas with other members of the class. Consider how special educators work with general educators in content area instruction.
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Summary
• Through careful teacher preparation, classroom environments—including the physical, social, and learning environments—can affect learning in positive ways.
• Special educators work with other team members to develop a student’s IEP, an official document that guides educators in planning student access to the general education curriculum and specialized instruction.
• Planning instruction begins with understanding content standards, key concepts, and essential questions; identifying what the student knows and is able to do; articulating knowledge and skills students need; developing instructional activities; and using accommodations (or modifications) and AT.
hapter 7 Methods for Teaching and Learning
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
Describe various theories regarding how students learn.
Compare and contrast two or more research-based teaching methods.
Discuss how educators might use learning or social networks to facilitate teaching and learning.
Educators implement instruction in a variety of ways, referred to as teaching methods. A
teaching method
is a broad approach based on theory, research, educational preparation, experiences, and/or philosophy. Sometimes referred to as an instructional method, a teaching method consists of a general plan that teachers follow to introduce new material, assist student learning, and provide feedback to students regarding their achievement. Some methods emphasize a teacher-centered, structured approach to delivering instruction and high levels of student responses, whereas other methods focus on the importance of working and learning with peers or expert learners and mentors. Unfortunately, there is no simple answer as to which method is best for students with disabilities. In this chapter, we explore the characteristics of several contemporary methods for teaching and examine the research findings related to students with disabilities. Before doing so, though, we begin by looking at various theories of learning.
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7.1 How Students Learn
Learning
is the change in what students are capable of doing as the result of formal and informal experiences (Cruickshank, Jenkins, & Metcalf, 2005; Parsons, Hinson, & Sardo-Brown, 2001). Through these experiences, such as teacher-planned lessons and instructional activities, students learn new skills, acquire new knowledge, and develop deeper understandings. Teachers plan and implement learning activities using one or more instructional methods, supported by theories of learning. We explore several of these contemporary theories that form the basis for methods of instruction. The major theories of learning include cognitive, behavioral, and social learning. Each theory views the student and the teacher through a slightly different lens, and each emphasizes different factors believed to be critical for learning to occur.
Cognitive Perspectives
Cognitive theories address how students think, process information, and remember (Ausubel, 1968; Ausubul, 2000;
Bruner, 1966
; Byrnes, 2000; Farnham-Diggory, 1992; Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 2001; Gagne, Wager, Golas, & Keller, 2004; Purcell-Gates, Jacobson, & Degener, 2004). They focus on the role of information processing, or how the learner takes in knowledge, stores it, and retrieves information. Thus retaining information in both short-term and long-term memory is an important component of cognitive theories.
Short-term memory
is memory that holds information temporarily. Individuals can keep information active in short-term memory by using various learning strategies, such as creating a mnemonic, a word or phrase that helps the individual to remember a set of steps or a series of words. The teacher’s role is to enable students to learn by organizing and structuring new information. For example, to show a student how to use a mnemonic, the teacher chunks information by grouping individual bits of information in a meaningful way. Chapter 8 gives further information about similar strategies that educators use to help students.
Long-term memory
is memory in which information is permanently stored. Cognitive theorists such as David Ausubel describe how teachers can promote classroom learning and enhance long-term memory. We discuss the following cognitive theories:
1. Ausubel’s cognitive theory
2. Constructivism
3. Metacognition
4. Multiple intelligences
Ausubel’s Cognitive Theory
Ausubel believes that teachers promote learning by planning well-organized, structured lessons and activities that selectively link new information to familiar information. At the beginning of each class, the teacher presents lesson objectives to students so that they know what they will learn and do as a result of the lesson. This teacher-directed instruction proceeds from general topics to specific ones and from familiar to new information.
Constructivism
Similar to Ausubel’s cognitive theory,
constructivism
(Fosnot, 2005; Marlowe & Page, 2005; Pass, 2004) views learning as a process in which students create new knowledge by building on their own past experiences and constructing knowledge as they interact with their teachers and peers. However, the constructivist approach focuses on student-centered activities rather than on more structured, teacher-directed lessons and activities.
CONSTRUCTIVISM IN ACTION.
Morgan Lindstrom, an elementary special educator, works with a fourth-grade teacher in planning to introduce a new science unit on energy and heat. They want the children to make discoveries and generate ideas that they can prove—or disprove—during class time. Morgan and her colleague decide to ask the students to consider the question, What are the characteristics of heat? During the beginning class discussions, they encourage students to draw on their past experiences to help formulate the answer. Students mention that a stove, an oven, a microwave, and a radiator give off heat. Then someone says that heat comes from coats and mittens. When the other children agree, the teachers decide to put aside other activities and help the children construct an experiment, observe the results, and correct the misconception. They begin by wrapping several thermometers in a coat and mittens. When the temperature does not rise, they discuss the findings and brainstorm ideas. They decide to seal the thermometers and clothing in plastic bags and continue to collect data. The class analyzes the results and brainstorms possible reasons for their findings. When there is still no change in the temperature, the teacher facilitates student discussions by writing down key concepts and drawing a picture to illustrate them. By organizing the class discussion in this way, the teachers help the students draw the conclusion that clothing merely holds the heat in when someone wears it. Through this unit, they hope that students will develop a better understanding of energy (adapted from Watson & Konicek, 1990).
METACOGNITION
Metacognition
involves learning how to learn and think. Flavell, Miller, and Miller (2001) define three types of metacognitive knowledge. First, learners hold beliefs about themselves as learners. For example, a student believes that listening to music is helpful when studying. Second, a learner has task knowledge, or an understanding of procedures that must be followed to complete a task. In mathematics, this type of knowledge is important when completing operations (for example, to add two different fractions, write the fractions with a common denominator). Third, a learner has strategic knowledge, or an understanding of selecting and using various approaches to solving a problem. In mathematics, strategic knowledge helps the student know how to begin to solve a word problem.
Students with disabilities often have difficulties because they do not know how to learn, solve problems, or complete assignments, even though they have the facts and information. They do not readily achieve proficiency in problem solving and higher order thinking skills, which are characteristics of successful learners. Many educators feel that these
metacognitive skills
should be taught along with the curriculum. Others believe that selected thinking skills should be integrated within the curriculum.
METACOGNITION IN ACTION.
We continue our visit with Morgan Lindstrom and her work outside the fourth-grade classroom. She explains, “Sometimes I work individually or with small groups of students to help them gain a better understanding of some of the upcoming learning activities in which they will be participating. Take, for example, the science lesson that we just completed on energy and heat. Several of the students with learning disabilities and ADHD in this classroom have difficulty in following the problem-solving approach to science. Last week, I worked with these students to help prepare them for their classroom work. First I presented a similar problem. We then talked through the steps that we could take to solve it. Teaching students how to go about solving a problem gives them some strategic knowledge. They bring this to their work in the general education classroom, helping them to be more successful.”
Multiple Intelligences
Some contemporary psychologists (Armstrong, 2000; Gardner, 1983, 2006) have written that multiple intelligences (MI) play a critical role in learning. Howard Gardner developed a complex theory of MI and described each intelligence, such as linguistic intelligence, musical intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence, naturalist intelligence, and possibly others.
Gardner theorized that each intelligence is relatively independent of the others but that frequently more than one intelligence is involved during the learning process. For example, a learner first observes and then imitates the actions performed by the teacher in learning a new skill. According to MI theory, a learner can use spatial, bodily, and interpersonal intelligences. Linguistic intelligence may be involved to a minor degree (if at all). By contrast, when the teacher presents new information during a classroom lecture, the learner needs to use mostly linguistic knowledge and some bodily-kinesthetic knowledge in note taking.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES IN ACTION.
The last refrain of a rap song lingers in the air as the children complete the final dance step. Someone asks if they can do a repeat performance. Tina asks the teacher assistant to take over so that she can explain what is going on. “I base a lot of my teaching on the theory of multiple intelligences. Many of my students love music, especially some of the rap by Johnny and the Kids, a popular rap group of 8-year-olds. We make up our own rap of the letters and their sounds and add some body movement. Usually we do a couple of songs as a warm-up activity before choosing a book to read. It’s really been amazing to see the children’s interest rise and to see how their music is helping them learn!”
Behavioral Perspectives
Behavioral theory (Coleman & Webber, 2002; Kazdin, 2001; Skinner, 1974) examines learning in terms of observable behaviors. Behavioral theorists believe that learning occurs by association. When two events occur together often, they are linked, and learning occurs. For example, when the teacher turns the lights off and asks the students to be quiet, they learn that turning off the lights means that they are to stop talking. After a few times, the teacher should be able to simply turn off the lights to restore quiet.
Theorists believe that reinforcement is the primary mechanism for changing behavior if the type of reinforcement is desired and meaningful. To increase desired student behaviors, educators use a set of rules, or principles of reinforcement (Walker, She, & Bauer 2006). The first principle is to reinforce only the target behavior, or the behavior that the student should exhibit, when it occurs. Second, the target behavior is reinforced immediately after it is exhibited. Third, the student receives reinforcement every time the target behavior is exhibited. Finally, as the target behavior becomes more consistent, the student is reinforced only intermittently.
Educators use various types of reinforcement, including consumable, activity-based, manipulative, possessional, and social reinforcement (Martin & Pear, 2002). Consumables consist of food that the student likes, such as crackers, fruit, or juice. Activity reinforcers are opportunities to engage in an activity that a student enjoys, such as listening to music, sending an e-mail message, or talking with friends. Manipulative reinforcers include activities that involve drawing, painting, or fixing a machine, for example. Possessional reinforcers include a chance to sit in a desired location, wear a favorite cap, or temporarily use an item that belongs to another. Social reinforcers include verbal praise, a high five, a smile, or a glance that indicates social approval. For reinforcers to be effective, teachers must determine what types of items a student likes or desires. This information can be gathered by asking the student to complete a checklist or talking informally with the student.
Positive reinforcement can be highly effective in helping students change problem behaviors. But unless educators and other school staff use the principles of reinforcement carefully, this intervention can have many pitfalls. Sometimes school staff inadvertently strengthen undesirable behaviors. In fact, many undesirable behaviors are due to the social attention that they evoke from aides, nurses, peers, teachers, parents, doctors, and others (Martin & Pear, 2002, p. 39).
Applied Behavior Analysis
Teachers can have a dramatic effect on the way students with disabilities learn and behave in the classroom by understanding and applying concepts associated with behavior theory through applied behavior analysis.
Applied behavior analysis
is a systematic procedure that involves identifying and describing a behavior in observable terms, assessing the frequency of the behavior, the antecedent conditions, and the consequences following the behavior, developing an intervention(s) designed to change the behavior, and observing and recording data regarding the effect of the intervention.
APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS IN ACTION.
Lionel Roy, a resource room teacher, uses applied behavior analysis in his work with students with problem behaviors. When a student is experiencing difficulties, Lionel begins by collecting critical information. He looks for antecedent conditions and consequences.
Antecedent conditions
are events, or triggers, in the environment that occur just before the behavior and can be adjusted by the teacher, who carefully observes any changes in student behavior. For example; a student came into class and slumped in his seat, refusing to participate. As Lionel talked with the student, he found out about a confrontation in the hall just before class.
Consequences
are events that occur directly after the behavior and, similar to antecedent events, can be adjusted by the teacher. Both antecedent conditions and consequences directly influence the recurrence of the behavior. As Lionel and the student continued to talk, Lionel learned that another teacher had stepped in to break up the argument, but both students left feeling angry, not having resolved the problem. Lionel quickly realized that, without intervention, this consequence was going to affect the student for the rest of the class period and, perhaps, the rest of the day.
Social and Affective Perspectives
Social and affective perspectives emphasize the importance of social skills, self-awareness, and relationships with others, which in turn affect learning. We discuss two theories associated with these perspectives:
1. Social cognitive theory
2. Emotional intelligence
Social Cognitive Theory
Social learning theory (Bandura, 1969, 1977, 1986; Glasser, 1990) focuses on how individuals acquire social behaviors and the effects of these behaviors on learning. Teachers can be effective models if they consider four interrelated factors (Bandura, 1986). First, the teacher must get the students’ attention. Second, retention of learning occurs when students rehearse or practice learning. Third, students must have opportunities to perform the task. Finally, motivation influences observational learning.
Emotional Intelligence
In additional to cognitive abilities, many researchers believe that emotional intelligence plays an important part in learning and in school success.
Emotional intelligence
includes the ability to manage feelings and handle stress, empathy for others, and learned optimism (Cherniss, 2000). Emerging research links emotional intelligence and competence to achievement and career success (Low, Lomax, Jackson, & Nelson, 2004).
Based on emotional intelligence, Goleman (2001) defines
emotional competence
as a learned capability that results in outstanding performance. Today, more and more schools recognize the strong relationship between social and emotional factors and successful student academic achievement (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, 2003; Payton et al., 2000; Zinns, Weissberg, Wang, & Wallberg, 2004).
Emotional competence can be viewed as a framework that includes both personal and social competence. Personal competence includes self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-motivation. Social competence includes social awareness and social skills. Table 7.1 illustrates these areas and describes characteristics of an individual displaying emotional competence.
For all learners, emotional processes affect the cognitive processes. For example, a negative mood can result in missing important details when listening to a group discussion. Educators can enhance their effectiveness by using interventions to improve student social-emotional functioning (Pellitteri, Dealy, Fasano, & Kugler, 2006). For example, a teacher carefully monitors the group dynamics and the emotional tone of social interactions as a small group of students engage in small talk during recess. In the past she has had to intervene quickly if a member of the group became aggressive with other students.
Teaching methods based on social and affective perspectives create ways to support peer tutors and opportunities for collaborative teams of students to work together. In fact, group support and cooperation among students are keys to facilitating learning. Students acquire social behaviors by observing and modeling other students. The classroom becomes a learning community that supports each member, and teachers design activities to foster a sense of belonging.
Table 7.1 Emotional Competence
Personal Competence
People with this competence
Self-awareness
→ Know which emotions they are feeling and why
→ Remain open to new perspectives, continuous learning, and self development
→ Recognize how their feelings affect their performance
Self-regulation
→ Manage their impulsive feelings
→ Are organized and careful in their work
→ Think clearly and stay focused under pressure
Self-motivation
→ Set challenging goals
→ Recognize setbacks as due to manageable circumstance rather than a personal flaw
→ Learn how to improve performance
Social Awareness
→ Are attentive to emotional cues and listen well
→ Show sensitivity and understand others’ perspectives
Social Skills
→ Are effective in give and take, registering emotional cues in attuning their message
→ Listen well, seek mutual understanding
→ Stay receptive to bad news as well as good
Adapted from the Emotional Competence Framework. Retrieved June 15, 2007, at the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations Web site: http://www.eiconsortium.org
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL PERSPECTIVES IN ACTION.
Special education consultant Teo Liang encourages the development of class spirit at the beginning of the school year by asking students to develop a class nickname and logo. He encourages them to think about the characteristics of their school and their classroom that make them special. Someone asks about the old foundry nearby, and Liang encourages them to investigate. As the students seek out information, they discover interesting facts and history of the old foundry. Someone creates a graphic of the old building, and the students vote to adopt this as their class logo. Some students volunteer to create a short video that explains their class nickname and logo, and Liang helps them post it to the Web.
Learning how to work together with others, sharing successes, and belonging to a group of peers are lifetime skills that help students to be contributing members in their communities. For students with learning and behavior problems, these skills are essential, yet their disabilities may have interfered with the acquisition of them. Teachers who consider teaching methods based in part on social learning theory believe that they can assist students to acquire collaborative skills in working with others.
Connecting Theories to Practice
We have seen that theories of learning provide a basis for understanding how students learn, including
• the ways that information is stored in memory;
• how students connect new information to information learned previously;
• knowledge of how to learn, or metacognition;
• the role of multiple intelligences;
• the effects of reinforcement;
• the importance of antecedent conditions and consequences;
• the effects of group support and cooperation.
Knowledge and understanding of how students learn provide the basis for one or more methods of instruction. Figure 7.1 illustrates the learning theories that we have discussed and their connections to various teaching methods discussed in the following section.
Previous section
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7.2 Methods That Support Teaching and Learning
Teachers often select a teaching method compatible with their own professional training, philosophy of education, or theoretical perspectives. Other factors, such as the characteristics of the learners, the classroom curriculum, and the teacher’s experience, also influence the selection of a teaching method (Figure 7.2).
Learning to be an effective teacher also includes developing knowledge of research supporting the method of teaching that the teacher uses. Although a teaching method may appeal intuitively to a teacher, if it does not have a strong research base, there is no assurance that it will be effective for students with disabilities. There are several contemporary teaching methods of interest: direct instruction, explicit or conspicuous instruction, affective instruction, differentiated instruction, and inquiry-based learning.
Direct Instruction
Direct instruction
is a systematic method that can be used to teach, practice, and reinforce specific skills (Adams & Engelmann, 1996; Carlson & Francis, 2002; Kroes-bergen & van Luit, 2003; Minskoff & Allsopp, 2003). Teachers use well-organized and structured lessons and activities to assist students in learning skills or demonstrating certain knowledge. As a teaching method, direct instruction incorporates elements of more than one learning theory (Figure 7.1). In addition to cognitive theories, direct instruction draws from behavioral theory, including the use of reinforcement. Educators use positive comments, high fives, and other types of reinforcement to aid student learning.
Teachers use direct instruction to assist students in learning skills and demonstrating knowledge.
What It Looks Like
Educators plan direct instruction by determining the sequence of skills in the curriculum area. The curricula and the sets of skills, sometimes referred to as a
scope and sequence
, are frequently part of a school’s curricular guide. Criterion-referenced assessments are good resources, too, because they provide a broad range of curricula and sequences of skills within curricular areas such as reading, mathematics, spelling, and writing. To assess student knowledge and weaknesses in one or more areas of the curriculum, special educators frequently use curriculum-based and criterion-referenced assessments. They analyze assessment information to determine how much students have mastered and what they do not know within the sequence of skills. This is the point at which they design and implement instruction.
When a teacher knows what students can and cannot do, he or she focuses on helping each one to succeed by offering instruction in a systematic, organized fashion (Figure 7.3). Direct instruction, sometimes referred to as mastery learning, can be used in general education classrooms and settings where students receive special education services.
Using the direct instruction method, a teacher tells students what they will be learning, the reasons for each lesson, and how these reasons relate to previous lessons. All students use the same materials and are involved in the same activity. The teacher serves as the principal source of information.
Figure 7.3 Characteristics of direct instruction
Because the purpose of direct instruction is to teach the students specific material, lessons are highly structured. Teachers may use applied behavior analysis. Applied behavior analysis is a systematic procedure that involves identifying and describing behavior in observable terms; assessing the frequency of the behavior, the antecedent conditions, and the consequences following the behavior; developing an intervention(s) designed to change the behavior; observing; and recording data regarding the effectiveness of the intervention.
Monitoring the effectiveness of direct instruction through data collection is sometimes referred to as precision teaching.
Precision teaching
is a precise and systematic procedure for evaluating instruction. Students are active participants in their progress as they count and chart daily learning.
An additional aspect of direct instruction usually involves teacher-directed discussion, readings, and classroom activities. The teacher checks frequently to make sure that each student is making progress toward the desired outcome. The progress checks provide valuable information and allow the teacher to make adjustments during the lesson if students are having difficulty. The teacher can provide correction and reteach some of the lesson, allot additional instructional time, or suggest extra learning materials. Because students learn at different rates, the teacher also plans enrichment activities. Thus, students who complete their work before other students have an opportunity to deepen and extend their knowledge. When students demonstrate that they have met the learning objectives, the class moves on to the next lesson (Figure 7.4).
A teacher spends time after the class reflecting on the lesson. For example, he or she might ask, Were the objectives clear to the students? Was the lesson presented clearly? Did the students have enough time to practice? How could I improve the feedback that I gave to the students? After thinking about the instruction, a teacher may decide to make changes for the following day. Reflection provides a teacher with a way to improve instruction. Reflective teaching is dynamic and powerful.
What the Research Says About Direct Instruction
Many research studies present evidence that direct instruction is effective in helping students with disabilities learn new skills and increase academic achievement across the curriculum. Swanson and Hoskyn (1998) examined 180 research studies that included students with learning disabilities. In synthesizing their findings, they reported that direct instruction was one of the pervasive influences in remediating the academic difficulties of children with learning disabilities. In a second meta-analysis, Swanson (1999a; Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2000) found that direct instruction and strategy instruction were the most effective techniques for adolescents with learning disabilities and mental retardation.
Figure 7.4 Direct instruction in practice
Similarly, a meta-anaylsis of mathematics instruction (Kroesbergen & Van Luit, 2003) found that in 58 studies of mathematics instruction for elementary students with disabilities, direct instruction and self-instruction were found to be the most effective methods. Additional studies describe the benefits of direct instruction on achievement in reading (Engelmann, 1999; Gardill & Jitendra, 1999; Spiegel, Vickers, & Viviano, 1999; Swanson, 1999b), mathematics (Kroesbergen & Van Luit, 2005; Maccini, Gagnon, Mulcah, & Leon, 2006), building social skills (Bendt & Nunan, 1999; Bertone, Boyle, Mitchel, & Smith, 1999), increasing listening skills (Engraffia, Graff, Jezuit, & Schall, 1999), language (Kroeger, & Nelson, 2006), and developing skills in language arts such as spelling (Berninger et al., 1998) and writing (Anderson & Keel, 2002; Walker, Shippen, Alberto, Houchins, & Cihak, 2006).
A special educator provides scaffolded instruction during initial learning.
Snapshot: Gabe Cerino’s Classroom
Gabe Cerino, a special educator at an elementary school, invites us to observe a lesson in the resource room. For the next 45 minutes this morning he will be working with Juan, a first grader. One of Juan’s IEP goals is to increase reading comprehension. To plan and monitor his specially designed instruction in reading, he uses a chart that lists the skills in developing phonemic awareness. Gabe keeps a daily check sheet of Juan’s progress.
When Juan comes in, he joins Gabe at the table, and together they look at a short letter that his teacher has written him (Figure 7.5). Gabe reads it aloud as Juan follows along. When he comes to a word missing the beginning or ending sound of s, he pauses and Juan writes in the corresponding letter.
After reading the book Gabe has promised, Juan begins work on a set of picture cards. He pronounces the name of each picture and decides which pictures belong in the pile beginning with an s sound. Before going back to his classroom, he completes a drawing of objects beginning with the s sound. Afterward, he and Gabe go over his work together, correcting any errors.
Explicit or Conspicuous Instruction
Explicit instruction
includes the systematic procedures of direct instruction and behavior analysis along with the design procedures derived from effective schools research (Hall, 2006.) Explicit instruction includes three essential components (Dimino, 2007):
1.
Metacognition.
Students know rules, concepts, and strategies. Students understand how to apply a strategy, such as how to identify an unfamiliar word when reading.
Figure 7.5 Juan’s letter
2.
Scaffolded instruction.
Scaffolded instruction consists of three phases: modeling, teacher-assisted or guided practice, and independent phases.
3.
Vocabulary instruction.
Vocabulary instruction includes selecting words that are associated with a specific content area. For example, in preparing a science lesson a teacher develops a definition of precipitation that will be comprehensible to the student. The teacher also plans to provide multiple meaningful exposures to practice the new vocabulary.
Educators often use explicit instruction in the general education classroom to meet the diverse needs of all learners.
What It Looks Like
The teaching team begins with the “big idea” of the unit. This is the content that all students will learn. Primed background knowledge includes the consideration of how the learner can access the information. The team also addresses any special needs of the students. Educators teach conspicuous strategies to students so that they know how to go about learning and problem solving. Knowing one or more of these effective strategies assists students to be more independent learners.
Educators also provide mediated scaffolding, or temporary support and guidance during initial learning. The degree of scaffolding is based on individual learner needs. For example, the teacher shows students how to interpret a graph displayed in the textbook. Together they discuss the meaning of new vocabulary words. The teacher might also develop an outline of the chapter content. Chapter 8 discusses scaffolding.
Educators also use strategic instruction to help students integrate the big ideas and apply their knowledge to other settings.
Strategic instruction
, often used in middle and secondary programs, is an approach that focuses on providing students with rules or guidelines so that they can approach learning activities or assignments more effectively and efficiently and with greater independence.
Finally, judicious review requires educators to identify information that is essential and monitor student progress. Additional activities provide review of the material and contribute to retention. Figure 7.6 illustrates the components essential to explicit instruction.
Figure 7.6 Explicit instruction in practice
What the Research Says About Explicit Instruction
A growing body of research supports the use of explicit instruction as an effective method for teaching students, including students with disabilities. A meta-analysis of spelling interventions conducted by one group of researchers (Wanzek et al., 2006) indicated that explicit instruction with multiple practice opportunities and immediate corrective feedback helped students consistently improve spelling. Explicit instruction in decoding and comprehension suggests that at-risk children in early elementary grades can achieve gains in comprehension and early reading skills (Pullen, Lane, Lloyd, Nowak, & Ryals, 2005; Willimas, 2005). Explicit instruction in mathematics increased student problem-solving abilities (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, & Appleton, 2002). Further, when explicit instruction is combined with concrete to representational to abstract (CRA) in teaching algebra, Witzel (2005) found an increase in student achievement. For social studies instruction, Williams and her colleagues (Williams et al., 2007) found that explicit instruction was more effective in learning social studies content than instruction that did not include explicit instruction.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
Research-Based Teaching Methods and Latino Students
What teaching methods work best for newcomer students, or students who have recently arrived in this country, and students from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds? In an extensive review of the research concerning Latino students, Fashola, Slavin, Claderón, and Durán (2002) found a number of replicable programs for elementary and middle schools that are proven to meet the needs of these students. These programs include the instructional methods that we discuss in this chapter, such as explicit and direct instruction, and a very effective instructional strategy, cooperative learning, that we discuss in Chapter 8. Success for All, a program that uses cooperative learning, one-to-one tutoring for students who have difficulties, and family support to build positive home-school relations, shows very positive results, too. Latino students who participated in the program made substantial gains on standardized tests, compared to Latino students who did not participate (Fashola et al., 2002). Yet Fashola et al. also found large gaps in the knowledge base concerning the teaching of reading and language arts, particularly in approaches designed for Latino or English language learners.
A research team led by Vaughn and her colleagues (Vaughn et al., 2006) compared the effectiveness of an explicit reading instruction for first-grade students whose home language was Spanish and who were at risk for reading difficulties with a group of comparison students who participated in the school’s standard instruction for at-risk students. This study found that children who participated in explicit instruction obtained significantly higher scores in phonological awareness, letter-sound identification, word attach, reading fluency, and comprehension.
Questions for Reflection
1. What teaching methods do educators in other countries use?
2. What Web-based resources might a first-year teacher find helpful for designing instruction?
Affective Instruction
Perhaps as a result of the increase in social problems, such as bullying behaviors, depression, substance abuse, and violent acts of students against other students and teachers, there is much interest in affective instruction. Based on social learning theory and much of the work of Maslow (1999) and Rogers and Freiberg (1994),
affective instruction
focuses on personal and social learning as well as the academic development of each student. Educators use different terms to describe one or more areas of affective education, including social and emotional learning (Elias et al., 1997) character education (Lickona, 1997), moral education (Gilligan, 1993; Noddings, 2005), multicultural education (Banks & Banks, 2003), and values education (Huitt, 2003). Additionally, some educators use specific curricula to promote personal development such as social skills training.
What It Looks Like
Affective instruction begins with careful thought and preparation regarding both the physical classroom and the learning environment (Figure 7.7). The teacher nurtures feelings of self-respect among the students as well as respect and acceptance of others. By planning learning activities that offer a degree of student choice, the educator assists students in developing a feeling of control over their work. Instruction includes both academic and personal/social development. For example, the teacher may stress the importance of skills he or she wants to see a student display in working with a partner. The teacher supports learning by using active listening and paraphrasing student comments or ideas. Visitors quickly observe that the teacher places a high value on citizenship and respect for others. Chapters 9 and 10 look more closely at ways educators help students develop and enhance social skills and positive behaviors.
Figure 7.7 Affective instruction in practice
What the Research Says About Affective Instruction
Muscott and O’Brien (1999) examined an after-school program for 19 elementary students with emotional or behavioral disorders. Instruction focused on one area of affective instruction called character education and the use of high school and college mentors. Through a series of interviews, the students reported that they learned to accept the responsibilities for their actions, that they made new friends, and that they responded to the ideas of cooperation and teamwork.
Another study (De Cuyper, Timbremont, Braet, De Backer, & Wullaert, 2004) reports findings in working with children with symptoms of moderate depression. Twenty children between the ages of 10 and 12 participated in 18 sessions of affective instruction. At the end of this period, the researchers found that both children and parents reported significant improvements.
Improvements were also noted for 15 children with autism (ages 8–17 years old) who participated in a 7-month intervention program that focused on teaching interpersonal problem solving, affective knowledge, and social interaction. The researcher (Bauminger, 2002) found that children were more likely to initiate positive social interaction with peers, including sharing experiences with peers and showing more interest in peers.
Snapshot: Ben Schultz’s Classroom
Ben Schultz sits on the edge of the desk, watching as students gather around two boys circling each other with threatening fists. Someone shouts, “Go for it.” The crowd of students begins to surge closer to the two students. Watching the monitor across from Ben, we can see a close up as the camera zeros in on one of the students in the background. “Cut.” Ben jumps up and provides suggestions to the young actors.
Later we learn that this class has been studying school citizenship and how to address the problems of bullying in their building. As a culminating project, the class is creating a series of videoclips with typical scenarios that many of the students have faced. Later they will use these videoclips as discussion starters as they visit other classes to help students find alternative ways to address common concerns. Although this project focused on affective skills and the use of problem solving as the students developed the story lines, Ben found that the students also demonstrated increased interest in planning and writing as they developed the scenario scripts.
We learn that this is the first of many projects the students will complete over the school year. Ben believes that combining affective and academic education is very helpful to his students. The students report that one of the most important aspects of this class is the teacher’s ongoing availability to students. They are quick to talk about the respect that their teacher shows for each student and how they, in turn, respect him.
Differentiated Instruction
Designed for the general education classroom,
differentiated instruction
is an inclusive approach for working with all students. Tomlinson (2001) identifies three assumptions underlying differentiated instruction. First, within any classroom, there is a wide range of learners. Second, there is no substitute for high-quality curriculum and instruction. Third, even with high-quality curriculum and instruction, effective educators must build bridges between the learner and learning. Teacher-student relationships are essential, and they take time to develop
Figure 7.8 Differentiated instruction
Source: Adapted from “Differentiated Instruction: Inclusive Strategies that Benefit the Whole Class,” by D. Lawrence-Brown, 2004, American Secondary Education, 32(3), pp. 34–62. Adapted with permission.
What It Looks Like?
An educator planning for differentiated instruction tries to maximize student attainment of grade-level curriculum standards (Lawrence-Brown, 2004). Planning differentiated instruction often begins with the concept of universal design.
Universal design
in education means that physical, social, and learning environments are designed so that individuals with a wide range of abilities can have meaningful access to and participation in general education. Universal design in education involves flexibility of materials, strategies, approaches, and technology. It can guide teachers as they work to make their teaching and learning activities appropriate and accessible to a wide range of learners.
Figure 7.8 illustrates the components of a differentiated classroom. Providing supports is an important strategy for helping some students to obtain grade-level proficiency. For these students with mild to moderate disabilities, grade-level standards are obtainable but very challenging (Lawrence-Brown, 2004). Supports include various types of materials, such as manipulatives, visual aids, charts, outlines, or assistive technology such as text-to-speech software to allow students to listen to textbooks. Additional supports may also include personal assistance such as peer tutoring or help from a teacher assistant. The teacher will use a variety of instructional strategies, such as a handout on the key concepts of the unit or a list of the new vocabulary terms. The teacher will help students make connections between prior knowledge and new learning.
Supports are also important so students with severe disabilities can follow alternative achievement standards or a prioritized curriculum. These supports enable a student to participate in the general education curriculum while following the IEP, which has different curriculum goals. These goals are accomplished within the context of large-group activities (Lawrence-Brown, 2004, p. 48).
Figure 7.9 Differentiated instruction in practice
Students with gifts and talents engage in an enriched curriculum. This curriculum allows students to explore concepts and ideas that are not typically covered in the classroom. Students have opportunities for completing challenging and creative projects and sharing their work with their classmates. Figure 7.9 illustrates these components of differentiated instruction in practice.
What the Research Says About Differentiated Instruction
Hawkins (2007) reports a longitudinal study of 100 public schools in Rhode Island that demonstrated significant improvement on achievement test scores between subgroups of students with IEPs and students without IEPs. This study focuses on improvements in either language arts or mathematics. School staff were asked to identify effective practices that contributed to the rise in student test scores. Among the practices identified were the use of differentiated instruction, small-group instruction, manipulatives, teacher read-alouds, and collaborative teaching models, among other practices. Additional research should lend further support to the use of differentiated instruction.
Snapshot: Jan Browski’s Classroom
Jan Browski greets us enthusiastically outside one of the eighth-grade classrooms. “Come on into our classroom! The students are anxious to show you our semester-long project, called ‘Exploring Our Town.’ Basically, the classroom teaching focuses on giving students the general skills that they need while working on the project. For example, a few weeks ago the students heard that a local construction company was going to build a new bridge over Temple Stream. We had heard that the Passamoquoddy Indians had camped near the stream in that area many years ago. As we talked, the students wondered about the history of the area and what would be lost as a result of the construction. They decided to conduct interviews with some of the tribe elders still living in the area. In the classroom, we discussed how to develop an interview and collect the data. Two of the students had some experience in developing interview questions, and they became our peer tutors for this aspect of the project. They each worked with small groups of students to help them refine their questions.
“You’ll see the students working in a 2-hour block of time today. Will Engart, the teacher assistant, is going to be working with one of the smaller groups. The students were assigned a small booklet to read. Some of the students read the historical account and others listened to a copy that was scanned in to the computer.”
As we sit in on the group discussion, we hear students asking
What viewpoint is this written from?
How do we know this?
How is this connected to what we learned in our interviews with the tribe elders?
Will leads the students in thinking about their interpretations. Students with strong higher order thinking skills are modeling various ways of connecting the information. Other learners have ample opportunities to observe, listen, and participate in the discussion. We leave the classroom realizing that differentiated instruction has enabled all students to deepen their understanding of preservation issues faced by this community.
Inquiry-Based Learning
Inquiry-based learning
relies on the teacher to create experiences from which students derive their own knowledge and meaning. Jerome Bruner (1966) believed that inquiry-based learning helps students take responsibility for their own learning and remember important information. Inquiry-based learning, sometimes referred to as discovery learning, or problem solving, is built on the theory of constructivism. Elements of social cognitive theory, such as group work and cooperation among students, play a role in inquiry-based learning. But organization of student activities should not be the only principle; inquiry is also characterized by the teacher’s mode of participation (Wells, 2000).
What It Looks Like
The teacher begins by planning a broad purpose, or goal, and helping students generate their own questions and topics. The teacher gathers information about the topics and makes sure that students have access to needed resources. Inquiry-based learning uses objects and ideas that encourage students to manipulate and compare. The teacher provides questions to capture students’ attention and encourage higher order thinking or ways of knowing that were discussed in Chapter 6. Students are encouraged to make guesses based on available information and to find ways of solving problems. The teacher acts as a guide, providing basic information and encouraging students to determine the best way to organize new and familiar information, but is careful not to provide guidance that would interfere with self-direction and discovery (Figure 7.10). General educators often use inquiry-based learning in the general education classroom in the belief that students learn best through active involvement. Science educators, for example, emphasize doing science by focusing on the following student activities: designing experiments, predicting results, manipulating materials, recording observations, and summarizing findings. These activities are quite different from other teaching methods, such as a more direct instruction approach in which the educator performs the experiment while students watch and then discuss the results.
Research to Practice
Teaching Methods and Specific Content Focus
Some teaching methods specific to a curriculum area also have a wide research base that demonstrates their effectiveness for students with disabilities.
An example of a curriculum-specific teaching method is MathWings (Madden, Slavin, & Simons, 2002), tied to the national mathematics standards developed by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. MathWings involves students in problem solving in real situations using cooperative groups and literature, science, art, and other subjects as well as the students’ personal experiences. Students are encouraged to use calculators for developing mathematical concepts, explain and defend their solutions orally, and write regularly in their individual logbooks. Research studies indicate that students involved in MathWings, including students in poverty, made substantial gains in mathematical achievement.
Special educators use supported inquiry-based learning to encourage inductive thinking.
Figure 7.10 Supported inquiry-based learning in practice
Source: Adapted from “Supported Inquiry Science: Teaching for Conceptual Change in Urban and Suburban Science Classrooms,” by B. Dalton and C. C. Morocco, 1997, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30(6), pp. 670–685. Adapted with permission.
Students are required to use inductive thinking in many inquiry-based activities. Inductive thinking requires students to consider their observations and then develop a general rule based on their findings or discoveries. Thus, the students “construct” knowledge as a result of their own observations and thinking.
Supported Inquiry-Based Learning
Because students with mild and moderate disabilities often have difficulty with inductive thinking (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1997), special educators often support them through the use of prompted coaching and supported inquiry methods. In the following dialogue (adapted from Mastropieri & Scruggs), notice how the teacher uses questioning during prompted coaching to help a student with a disability to draw inferences:
Educator:
Anteaters have long claws on their front feet. Why does this make sense?
Student:
I don’t know.
Educator:
Well, let’s think. What do you know about anteaters? For example, what do they eat?
Student:
Anteaters eat ants.
Educator:
Good. And where do ants live?
Student:
They live in holes in the ground.
Educator:
Now, if anteaters eat ants and ants live in holes in the ground, why do you think that anteaters have long claws on their front feet?
Student:
To dig for ants.
Educator:
Good. To dig for ants.
Sometimes in supported inquiry-based learning, the educator provides the general rule to the students first. Then students are prompted and questioned to apply the rule (Woodward & Noell, 1992). Educators also embed assessment in instruction, including performance tasks as well as questions that students respond to in drawing and writing (Dalton & Morocco, 1997).
What the Research Says About Inquiry-Based Instruction
Research studies supporting the benefits of inquiry-based learning have focused on the importance of insight and discovery to learning (Parsons et al., 2001). Students report that inquiry-based learning is enjoyable (Algava, 1999; Romeo & Young, 1997). Teachers using an inquiry-based, hands-on science curriculum have found that students with learning disabilities learn and comprehend more information than students taught from textbooks (Scruggs, Mastropieri, Bakken, & Brigham, 1993). Research findings suggest that coaching students with learning disabilities to draw inferences regarding science principles results in higher levels of recall and understanding (Palincsar, Magnusson, Collins, & Cutter, 2001) and that supported inquiry is more effective than an activity-based science approach alone (Dalton & Morocco, 1997; Sasaki & Serna, 1995). Use of inquiry with Web-based activities is an effective practice in inclusive biology classes (Bodzin, Waller, Santoro, & Kale, 2007). These studies are part of a small, but growing, body of research that focuses on inquiry-based learning and higher order thinking.
Snapshot: Kayla Hennesey’s Classroom
Kayla Hennesey, a special educator in a small K–8 community school, has invited us to join her and her students for the day. One of the first things we see when entering her resource room is a large glass terrarium on a table. Several students are gathered around the table this morning, some with handhelds (such as PDAs) and others with notebooks. The students are using these to record their daily observations. As we move closer, we see a cocoon hanging from a branch. On the table is a variety of magnifying glasses. The students are following the life cycle of two caterpillars they found earlier. Each week they record their observations and take a digital picture to add to the class Web site.
Kayla introduced the unit by leading a discussion about two different caterpillars she had brought to class. Most of the students knew that caterpillars metamorphosed into butterflies. But the teacher continued to probe, hoping that the additional questions she posed would create interest among the students. Do you think that all caterpillars have the same life cycle? What kinds of butterflies will metamorphose from these caterpillars? The students were hooked! Can we find out? Once the students had accepted the challenge, Kayla helped them decide how to conduct their observations and collect their data. She provided multiple ways, including both text and digital formats, for drawing or sketching and recording their observations. Working with the school librarian, she located resource books at different reading levels and identified community resource people with whom students could discuss their ideas.
7.3 Using Technology
Tablets and Laptops: Tools or Too Many Obstacles?
In considering ways of teaching, tablets and laptops provide exciting possibilities for enhancing teaching and learning activities because each student can access an enormous amount of information from a desktop or small-group work area. These technology tools enable students to develop skills in working with others and to enhance self-esteem and self-sufficiency while working on content knowledge. Students also can use software to help them organize their school schedules and assignments as well as other aspects of their daily lives. Technology tools, such as text-to-speech software or word prediction, may allow some students with disabilities to access and use information more efficiently and more accurately than traditional materials.
However, for some students with disabilities, using tablets and laptops may create major problems. Some students may not be able to see text on the screen, either because it is too small or because they are not able to read text written at a specific level. Laptops and tablets may not be compatible with specialized software that students with disabilities need to access text information or they may not support the use of voice input as a keyboard alternative. For students who have difficulty in keyboarding or who are not physically able to use a keyboard, accessing the computer directly using speech-recognition software allows them to find and use information. For students with fine motor difficulties, the reduced keyboard size of some laptops, buttons on tablets, and minikeyboards or thumb keyboards may be too small or too complicated or may require too high a degree of fine motor control to operate. Here are some questions to consider: What are some of the difficulties that the keyboard or screen might present to a student with a disability? What are some advantages to using a tablet? How easy or difficult is it to learn to use one? What problems might this tool present to a student with a disability?
IN PRACTICE
As we learned earlier in this chapter, a method consists of a general plan that the teacher follows to introduce new material, assist student learning, and provide feedback to students regarding their achievement. Educators typically select and use teaching methods with which they are most familiar. Often an individual teacher’s selection of a method is based on earlier training and experiences provided by experienced mentors.
Selection of a teaching method also should be based on research findings. The teacher should ask which methods are most effective for students with disabilities.
Classroom Focus
Sean Bellaire, a high school special educator, and Mary Wallace, a high school social studies teacher, meet twice a week to plan daily lessons. Today they are starting a new unit, and together they decide that Sean should begin the class by discussing a general topic, familiar to the students, and then move to the specific topic of today’s lesson.
Working Toward Solutions
As students settle into their seats, Sean asks, “How many of you have ever moved to a new neighborhood or a new community?” He encourages students to share their experiences, sometimes probing with questions such as, How did you prepare for the move? and How long did it take to get settled? After students have a chance to share their experiences, Sean and Mary introduce the new unit, the Western Movement. Each student receives a handout with a graphic that represents the overall unit and an outline of the material to be covered today. Several new vocabulary words, such as Donner Pass, are included on the handout.
After previewing what they will be covering for today, Mary uses her laptop and a data projector to display the outline with key concepts on the screen while she presents the information orally. She also encourages students to participate in the lively discussion concerning the new information. During this time, Sean assists several students to record notes on the outline handout. Next the teachers pass out a written follow-up activity for each student to complete. At the end of class, Mary provides a brief review of what they covered and answers any questions about an upcoming assignment. For a student with a mild to moderate disability, a method of instruction that is well organized and structured helps in learning new information.
What the Research Says
Probably no other teaching method has such a wide research base as direct instruction. Numerous research studies focus on the effectiveness of direct instruction for students with learning disabilities, behavior disorders, mild to moderate mental retardation, and autism. In fact, the effectiveness of direct instruction is not restricted to a particular disability, age group, or skills area (White, 1988).
Direct instruction is one of the most effective classroom interventions. In a review of 24 meta-analyses concerning various types of intervention used with students with disabilities, Forness (2001) found that direct instruction, mnemonic strategies, reading-comprehension strategies, and behavior modification were the most effective methods.
MyEducationLab: Your Turn
Learn more about how teachers use direct instruction—go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Instructional Practices and Learning Strategies. Then watch the video entitled “Reading: Direct Instruction.” Compare and contrast how the teachers in the preceding scenario and the teacher in the video used direct instruction. Be prepared to discuss your ideas with members of the class.
7.4 Emerging Concepts
What will teaching and learning look like in your classroom? Emerging concepts in the field of education as well as new technologies present innovative ways of teaching and learning. As you read the following section, envision how you might employ one or more of these concepts or technology tools in your future classroom. Do you think teaching and learning would be more effective?
Learning and Social Networks
Technology offers new windows of opportunity for creating learning networks among students. Learning portals that provide a single point of access, coupled with wireless and mobile technologies such as laptops and cell phones, allow students to connect with others in the classroom and in classrooms across the world to collect data, solve problems, and create products. Moreover, these technologies offer multiple formats for learning. Students download multimedia content, including text, graphics, animations, video or audio clips. For many students, being “plugged in” is not only motivating but also helps make learning fun.
For other students, networks provide opportunities for using new skills. Today students build social networks beyond physical neighborhoods and communicate regularly with individuals with whom them have common interests but have never met face to face. Educators can build social networks for students to introduce and practice social skills by working with others or role playing in virtual worlds. Participating in social networks, though, demands an understanding of certain protocols for participation and a foundation of learning how to play safely.
In a synchronous learning or social environments, the students or the instructor and the students communicate in real time. However, asynchronous environments operate continuously, and learners come during times that are convenient.
Synchronous learning allows teachers to provide immediate feedback and correct student misunderstandings. Technology tools that may support this environment include student-controlled clickers to participate in whole-class quizzes, voice and video conferencing with experts across the country, text messaging with other students across the globe, and live Web quests.
Asynchronous learning allows teachers to extend learning beyond the classroom in an interactive way, providing students opportunities to think more deeply about their activities and then participate in threaded discussions, create blogs, or produce materials to post to a Web-based bulletin board. Podcasts allow students to listen to material once or multiple times, if needed.
Future learning networks may provide a variety of environments, using the best features of each. In class, seat time may be augmented by small-group activities in a synchronous environment; later, students may post ideas and drafts of work in an asynchronous environment. The 21st century is truly a time of emerging concepts, technologies, and new ideas for learning networks!
Snapshot: Piper Armstrong’s Mentorship Program
Piper recently graduated from the state university with a major in biology and coursework in special education. In her first year of teaching at Randall High, she is participating in an interesting mentorship program. She explains that this online mentoring project, called Electronic Mentoring for Student Success (eMSS), matches new teachers (first or second year of teaching middle or high school science) with an experienced science teacher from another school district who teaches in the same content area. The mentoring takes place online and is focused on content and pedagogy. Scientists from the University of California and Montana State University also participate to provide content support when needed or share their research activities. Discussion areas are provided for earth, space, life, and physical science, and several modules are designed to explore different aspects of science teaching between mentors and mentees (eMSS, 2006).
Extending Learning
1. Working with another colleague, choose two or more theories of learning and create text descriptions or diagram the theories’ main aspects. Which instructional methods best support these theories?
2. Consider the methods discussed in this chapter. Which methods would you identify as teacher directed? Student directed?
3. Identify the methods that your instructors use most frequently. Work with your classmates to create a collective chart of the methods and their frequency. Which method(s) do you prefer as a learner? Why?
4. Consider a recent classroom observation or visit that you have completed. What instructional method(s) did you observe?
5. Contact a local special educator to discuss the teaching methods that are typically used in the classroom. Share your findings with the class.
6. Using the information collected in the previous question, analyze the methods used by classroom level. Compare and contrast the methods used in elementary classrooms with those used in middle and secondary classrooms. Are there similarities? Differences?
Snapshot: Allana Gabrielli’s Classroom
Allana Gabrielli, the teacher you met at the beginning of this chapter, was ready to begin a unit on environmental pollution. Using a curriculum based on state and national science standards, Allana intended to introduce the students to Lake Baikal, which is located in southeastern Siberia. Lake Baikal is the oldest existing freshwater lake on earth and the deepest continental body of water. Pollution of Lake Baikal from industrial wastes continues to be a serious environmental problem.
Allana recognized that few students in her class would be familiar with Lake Baikal. However, she knew that most students had some knowledge of air and water pollution. Realizing that she wanted to enable her students to connect prior knowledge with new knowledge and develop a deeper understanding of environmental pollution, Allana asked them to share what they already knew about pollution and give examples. Once students had a common understanding of pollution, Allana planned to introduce activities that would help them construct a deeper meaning of the concept.
Preteaching is a useful process when students have limited background knowledge or experiences on a topic. Preteaching orients learners to a new topic, vocabulary, and concepts. Strategies used in preteaching include recalling prior experiences and prior knowledge, using advanced organizers and concept maps, and teaching new vocabulary. A teacher can utilize these techniques during various activities, including discussions, field trips, experiments, simulations, role plays, and multimedia use.
Allana Gabrielli implemented preteaching with her students. She asked students to share what they already knew about pollution. She taught them the meaning of new vocabulary terms such as contamination, pollutant, hazardous waste, and solid waste. Finally, she showed the students how the unit was organized using an outline, a graphic organizer, and a schedule of science activities for the week.
Reciprocal learning
(
Hyerle, 1996
;
Rosenshine, 1997
) occurs when a teacher or peer models a process and provides coaching, cueing, or scaffolding as students engage in a task. Reciprocal learning helps students
• learn important skills or information;
• increase understanding or application of new ideas;
• improve cooperative skills; and
• develop listening and positive feedback skills.
As students become expert, the teacher or peer phases out the supports and students assist each other in learning the task. The teacher monitors student progress and provides assistance when appropriate. Collaboration, cooperation, and interdependence are at the heart of reciprocal learning.
Tim Downs plans a reciprocal learning activity for his students to help increase their comprehension of a story they were reading. He asks each student to develop three questions about the story, with one student taking the role of coach and one student taking the role of a player. The player begins by reading a passage from the story, developing a question about what has been read and then answering the question aloud. The student who is the coach listens to the answer and determines if the answer is correct. If it is correct, the coach provides praise; if it is incorrect, the coach provides clues to lead the player to the correct answer. After the first player answers several questions in a row, the roles are reversed. While the students engage in reciprocal teaching, the teacher monitors the comprehension of the story and acts as a super coach (a coach of the student coaches), consulting with the coaches about the answers given.
Modeling
is a process in which a person who is skilled demonstrates to a less skilled person how to do a task, engage in a process, or provide a response. Modeling includes good examples or exemplars of how experts solve problems.
A teacher can use modeling to demonstrate how fluent readers read a text, scientists arrive at conclusions, or mathematicians solve a problem. For example, a teacher can model how to find the answer to the problem 6 × 9 = ? by using manipulatives such as blocks or Cuisenaire rods. The teacher shows students how to count off nine blocks. Next, the teacher arranges six groups of nine blocks. Finally, the teacher shows the students how to calculate 6 × 9 using the groups of blocks.
Coaching
involves providing hints or suggestions to students so that they can acquire knowledge and skills, perform a task, or demonstrate a behavior. Coaching allows students to become involved in their own learning.
Allana Gabrielli could suggest that a student check a particular Web site for specific information about the temperatures of Lake Baikal and could ask a thought-provoking question such as, How could you predict the long-term effects of pollution on humans and animals?
In another classroom, Seth, an eighth-grade pre-algebra student in Kyle MacLeod’s class, took advantage of coaching to help him discover the process of finding the rate of a car going X miles for half an hour. Kyle asked, “How fast would the car be going if it went 20 miles in 1 hour?” Seth responded, “Twenty miles per hour.” Kyle then inquired how fast the car would have to go to travel the same distance in only half an hour. Seth thought and then answered, “It would have to go twice as fast, 40 miles per hour.” Kyle next asked Seth to think about how he arrived at the answers of 20 miles per hour and 40 miles per hour for the two examples. Seth replied that he divided the distance by the time it took the car to travel.
Cueing
provides a cue, clue, hint, stimulus, or reminder that helps students elicit the correct response. Cueing can be physical, social, or verbal. Physical cuing can be a touch or tap by a teacher. An arrow placed on a student’s worksheet can indicate where the student should begin work. A teacher’s nod can tell a student when to begin reading.
Cueing can be used to aid students who have difficulty remembering steps for solving problems. The letters
K-W-L
—where K represents what you know, W is what you want to know, and L is what you learned (
Ogle, 1986
)—can be put on cards in order to provide written hints.
Here are the cues that Allana Gabrielli’s students generated at the beginning of the unit on environmental pollution:
What We Know
There are many causes of pollution.
Pollution has a long-term impact on the environment.
What We Want to Know
Which lakes are the most polluted?
What are the causes of environmental pollution?
What are the impacts of pollution on people?
What We Learned
What people have done to stop polluting lakes
What laws and regulations have been developed to curb pollution
Key questions can serve as cues. These questions include the following:
• Who is the story about?
• What are the important details?
• Where did the events occur?
• When did the events occur?
• What is your interpretation?
Instructional
scaffolding
refers to teaching strategies that support students as they acquire knowledge and skills. As learners take more responsibility for their learning, the structures, supports, and scaffolds can be faded and learners can work independently. In order for scaffolding to be effective, it should be
• relevant and related to the task, response, or behavior that the student is asked to do;
• provided when needed; and
• diminished or faded over time.
Tim Downs knows that he needs to scaffold the reading process of his students as they improve their reading and tackle more difficult materials. He models fluent reading, helps them to figure out words that are difficult for them, and reviews the content of what they have read to help increase their understanding. As the students become skilled readers, the need for support from their teacher will fade.
The following techniques can be used when scaffolding instruction:
• Encourage students to think and engage in problem solving.
• Ask students to recognize rather than recall.
• Ask questions that encourage students to make predictions and solve problems.
• Ask, “What do you think might happen next?”
• Allow enough wait time for an answer. Silence can be productive and may mean that students are thinking. When students do respond, ask, “How did you come up with that answer?”
• Restate students’ questions in order to encourage responses.
• Ask students what is known before offering an explanation.
• Avoid questions that can be answered with one word, such as yes or no.
• Make comments, ask questions, and provide clues that help students figure out how to read or write a new letter or word or remember what happened in a story that has been read aloud.
• Offer genuine praise for efforts and accomplishments. Notice small successes as well as large ones: “I see you wrote a P on your picture. That’s the first letter in your name, ‘Peter.’ You’re on the right track.”
• Encourage students to take risks and learn from mistakes. Be specific in your feedback (adapted from
Koralek & Collins, 1997
).
• Use think-alouds to model problem-solving strategies. The teacher verbalizes the approach to problem solving or verbalizes specific strategies that were used to read words, use context clues, use illustrations to figure out the meaning, or comprehend the text.
• Preview the text with students by using background knowledge, making predictions, anticipating events, and following the story line.
• Cue students to where the answers can be found.
• Be sure to use explicit and clear instructions when asking students to do tasks.
In
guided practice
, students—working alone, with other students, or with a teacher—engage in a set of activities that involve organizing, reviewing, rehearsing, summarizing, comparing, or contrasting tasks, behaviors, responses, or processes. During guided practice, students receive feedback and instructional support based on close monitoring of activities. These practice activities are related to the outcomes that the teacher is trying to teach and assist students in minimizing errors as they master new skills and information. Guided-practice activities are structured and include work assignments, strategy practice, and peer interactions such as cooperative learning, peer tutoring, and partner work (
Kemp, Fister, & McLaughlin, 1995
).
When guiding practice after a lesson on the effects of pollution on Lake Baikal, Allana Gabrielli asked students to brainstorm research questions about the effects of pollution on Lake Baikal and develop a graphic that demonstrates their investigations. When brainstorming, students used rules for participating in group discussions (e.g., do not interrupt when another student is speaking, all ideas are important), generated research questions, recorded questions, developed criteria for selecting essential questions, and used consensus to rank the key questions from low to high. Once the essential questions were identified, cooperative teams were formed to investigate the questions.
Figure 8.1
illustrates the brainstorming process and
Figure 8.2
shows Allana Gabrielli’s notes from the class discussion.
Sequencing
involves breaking down a larger task, response, or behavior into its components so that a student can complete one component at a time. Breaking down a writing assignment into components, which include brainstorming a topic, selecting reference materials, organizing and developing paragraphs, and drawing conclusions, is an example of sequencing. Breaking a task into smaller steps that can be completed one at a time enables students to perform each smaller task successfully.
Figure 8.1 Brainstorming process
Paolo Gomez, a high school history teacher, wanted his students to better understand how to use abstract thinking as part of the research process. For a unit on the development of countries, he decided that his students would do best if he sequenced the tasks for them instead of just assigning a research paper. This is the sequence of tasks that he assigned his students:
• Students and teacher select readings and resources from a prepared list.
• Students read and explore resources on the development of two countries, one modern and one ancient.
• Students create a double time line that includes facts from both countries.
Figure 8.2 Allana Gabrielli’s notes on the class discussion
• Students construct Venn diagrams that compare the similarities and differences of several key resources.
Figure 8.3
shows an example of a Venn diagram. (A Venn diagram can be used to analyze, compare, and contrast characteristics, ideas, items, and information.)
• Using the information that they generated, the students write their reports.
Monitoring
Monitoring
is a process in which the teacher and/or students engage in continuous evaluation of a student’s work, behavior, and activities in order to determine problem areas or areas of concern, difficulty, or strength. Once problem areas are identified, the teacher develops and implements strategies that address the areas of concern.
Figure 8.3 Venn diagram. This chart can be used to analyze, compare, and contrast characteristics, items, ideas, and information
Monitoring involves careful observation. When monitoring, the teacher checks to see whether students
• understand and follow directions;
• understand vocabulary;
• need cueing, prompting, or modeling;
• need additional instruction in strategies, processes, or skills; or
• need additional materials.
Tim Downs, the teacher you met at the beginning of this chapter, used monitoring as he observed Deborah and James. As he watched them, he noted the reading strategies that each student used, strategies that were successful and those that were not, reading progress, prompts that the students used with each other, and appropriateness of the reading materials. As Tim monitored the students, he identified ways in which he could intervene and scaffold reading instruction.
Social relationships can foster new learning (
Goleman, 2006
;
Siegel, 2006
). Relationships with others can create and catalyze multiple opportunities for recruiting students’ interests and maintaining learning. Cooperative learning focuses on structuring learning situations cooperatively so that students work together while gaining academic knowledge and social skills. The model builds on the premise that when students work together in small groups, they maximize their own and each others’ learning. To master skills required for living and working in their communities, students must be skilled in fostering social relationships as they are learning cooperatively with others. Lee and Ertmer (2006) wrote that group learning promotes and sustains active learning as well as engagement in learning. Other researchers (
Koschmann, Kelson, Feltovich, and Barrows, 1996
) have considered an important cognitive benefit of group participation, which allows students to be engaged and reflect deeply on their ideas.
Research to Practice
Wait Time
Wait time is the amount of time between a teacher- or student-initiated question and the response or next question. Research (
Tobin, 1987
) shows that when wait time is used
• students’ responses increase and non-responses decrease;
• students offer more evidence to support their responses;
• students’ answers are more complex;
• student confidence increases; and
• student-to-student interactions increase.
When using wait time, teachers should wait at least 5 seconds between asking the question and acknowledging students’ responses. They should tell students to raise their hands or signal when they have a response and say that they will call on students after at least 5 seconds have elapsed. Silence is a productive aspect of wait time, and teachers should not be uncomfortable when it occurs. During silence, teachers can check students’ faces for evidence of confusion, misunderstanding, and comprehension.
If there are no responses after 5 to 10 seconds of wait time, teachers can
• repeat the question;
• rephrase the question;
• ask a student to attempt to rephrase the question;
• break the question down into parts; or
• ask students what it is about the question that they are finding difficult.
Questions for Reflection
1. Explain why wait time is an important instructional strategy.
2. Develop wait-time guidelines for students to use with each other.
As discussed in the first half of this chapter, teachers use a variety of preteaching and teaching strategies not only to help students to work independently in the classroom but also to help them work together cooperatively. When using cooperative learning strategies, a teacher clearly communicates the learning outcomes to students before the cooperative learning activity begins. The teacher models positive interpersonal skills such as turn taking and listening while others talk. The teacher communicates respect for all members of the group and encourages students to help, share, and encourage others.
These students are engaged in a cooperative learning activity.
Research on cooperative learning indicates many benefits for students, both with and without disabilities. Cooperative rather than competitive and individual learning can lead to increased achievement, high levels of productivity, supportive relationships among learners, and increased self-esteem. Students with disabilities show increases in mathematics achievement (
Xin, 1998
), literacy (
O’Connor & Jenkins, 1995
), science achievement (
Farlow, 1994
; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1997;
Natal, 1997
;
Salend, 1998
), social studies (
Okolo & Ferretti, 1998
), and higher order thinking skills across the curriculum (
Ibler, 1997
).
Planning cooperative learning activities shifts the emphasis from assignments that require students to complete individual work to small-group assignments that require students to work cooperatively while maintaining individual accountability. Before beginning a cooperative learning activity in the classroom, teachers must thoroughly plan instruction so that students know and understand interpersonal skills in working with others and have opportunities to practice them. During the course of the year, teachers use instructional time to teach skills in the following areas:
• Listening
• Taking responsibility
• Leadership
• Communication
• Building trust
• Decision making
• Conflict management (
Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1993
)
IN PRACTICE
There are many different ways to form cooperative learning groups, depending on the purpose of the lesson. If one of the learning outcomes is for students to gain specific knowledge or skills, the learning group will be arranged to foster peer tutoring. On the other hand, if one of the outcomes is to investigate a topic, the learning group will be designed to share responsibility for gathering information.
Classroom Focus
Peer tutoring or peer teaching is a process in which a skilled student, with a teacher’s guidance, assists one or more students at the same grade level learn a skill, concept, or behavior. Cross-age tutors are students who work with other students who are either younger or older than themselves.
Peer tutoring has mutual benefits for both tutors and tutees. Peer tutoring has the potential to boost achievement, increase understanding, foster problem-solving skills, improve interpersonal skills, and gain confidence in tackling more difficult work. Additional benefits include
• learning positive attitudes, values, and skills;
• learning to share, help, comfort, and to empathize with others; and
• developing identity and autonomy (Benard, 1990;
Thomas, 1993
).
Working Toward Solutions
When developing a peer-tutoring program, teachers should consider the following steps:
1. Establish goals for the tutoring sesion(s).
2. Invite students who are eager to participate and who are willing to make a commitment to tutoring.
3. Train tutors by giving them an overview of tutoring, its importance and goals, and how to structure a tutoring session.
4. Provide guidelines and expactations for the tutees.
5. Identify or design activities that lead to success.
6. Organize materials and resources that will be used during the sessions.
7. Model a tutoring session.
8. Provide time for tutoring.
9. Provide guidance and feedback to the students in the form of prompts, questions, and modeling.
10. Evaluate the peer-tutoring program to determine its success. Evaluation activities can consist of gathering information through interviews, brief surveys, and observations.
MyEducationLab: Your Turn
Go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Instructional Practices and Learning Strategies. Then watch the videos entitled “Elementary Math: Heads Together” and “Middle School Science: Think-Pair-Share.” After viewing these videos, notice the interactions of the students and describe the strategies that the students and teachers demonstrated. Share other ways that support cooperative learning activities among students with and without disabilities.
Peer mentors
can reduce behavior problems and absenteeism among elementary students who are transitioning to middle school (
Leland-Jones, 1998
). Sixth graders were matched to a mentor/tutor, meeting twice weekly to become better acquainted and to work on academic and other concerns. Each person kept a journal detailing the problems, discussions, and possible solutions for each meeting. After the 8-month intervention project, teachers reported fewer student requests for assistance and fewer referrals for behavior problems and absenteeism.
Personal stories of young men who had a history of violence, substance abuse, inadequate educational experiences, and physical and sexual abuse are related by Kipnis (1999). A number of these individuals were considered violent, and some had been incarcerated as adolescents. Their personal accounts describe effective programs, including mentoring and its effect, in helping them overcome these behaviors to become productive adults.
Jigsaw
activities are lessons designed to help all students learn a certain body of material. The activity begins with each team member being assigned the responsibility for learning a specific part of the assignment and becoming the expert for the group’s team. After meeting with members of other groups who are becoming expert in the same area, the experts return to their own groups and share what they have learned. The teacher monitors the progress of the teams, provides assistance, when appropriate, and informally assesses individual knowledge of the whole assignment (
Slavin, 1994
).
Snapshot: Jerry Novak’s Classroom
Jerry Novak is a high school special educator. Over the past few weeks, he and the ninth-grade school social studies teacher have been coteaching a unit on U.S. government. Today they will focus on the three branches of government: the legislative, judicial, and executive.
Jerry greets us and offers an overview of what we will see. “During planning time last week, we decided to use a type of cooperative learning activity called jigsaw. Yesterday we assigned students to groups of four, and each student in the group was given a different section of the material to be learned. Today you’ll see how each group member is responsible for learning the information and for teaching it to the other members of the group. In other words, each individual is responsible for learning all the assigned material.”
As the students enter the classroom and assemble in their small groups, Jerry begins, “Now that you have formed your groups and you each have a section of the material, let’s review the steps for doing a jigsaw.” (He reviews the steps.)
Bill and Jody, a student with Down syndrome, check that they have the same material and then begin reading silently at first. After a few minutes, Jody turns to Bill and asks, “Hey, what’s this word?” Bill helps Jody and then softly finishes reading the material out loud.
“Okay, let’s see if you can summarize what I read,” says Bill. Jody begins and then checks his material to find the rest of his answer.
“Now it’s your turn,” says Bill, and Jody carefully follows his page, checking what Bill says. They decide to repeat this process.
A special educator monitors students’ work.
After completing their summary, Bill asks, “Okay, are we ready to underline the important parts?” They each grab a colored marker and check each other as they mark their papers. They add some ideas from the day before as notes in the margin.
“Now we have to write down the main ideas and the supporting detail,” says Bill, going to the computer. Jody dictates his ideas while Bill types them in and then adds several of his own. Bill repeats them aloud as he types so that Jody has a chance to see and hear them.
Jody slips in front of the keyboard and prints out two copies, one for each of them to take back to their group. Before they leave, they go over their plans on how to teach the material to other group members.
Learning together activities consist of students working cooperatively in small, teacher-assigned groups on common tasks. Students create a single group product, making sure that each member of the group contributes suggestions and ideas. The teacher monitors the progress of the group and provides assistance when appropriate. The group, rather than individual members, is rewarded for its accomplishments (
Johnson & Johnson, 1989
).
Student teams-achievement divisions (STAD)
involve activities that develop team spirit in addition to academic and team work skills. STAD involves teacher introduction of content, team study, individual accountability, team recognition, and opportunity for all students to succeed. The teacher forms student groups of four or five members, including high, middle, and low achievers, and presents the new information to the whole class. Then the teamwork begins. Team members study and practice the material in their groups. All team members are responsible for their own learning as well as the learning of the other team members. They complete worksheets and practice exercises, discuss the material, and quiz one another. The teacher monitors the progress of the team and provides assistance when appropriate. At the end, the teacher administers a quiz that students complete individually. After computing individual scores, the teacher adds individual points to the total team points. Students who show improvement or who receive a perfect score secure the most points for their team.
Teams-games-tournaments (TGT) activities also involve developing team spirit in addition to academic and teamwork skills, but the teacher does not use quizzes to test student knowledge. After team members work and practice together, a tournament is held in which individual students compete as representatives of their team. The teacher matches individuals from each team based on their prior performance.
In the circle of knowledge, the task of the students is to develop as many possible solutions as they can to a problem posed by the teacher. The teacher divides the students into small circles or groups. One student in the group is assigned to be the recorder and reporter of circle activities. The activity concludes with each circle reporting its answers (
Kline, 1995
).
Complex instruction (
Cohen & Lotan, 1997
), originally developed for Spanish bilingual classes, involves group activities that are organized around a central concept, or big idea. The teacher provides students with multiple opportunities to work on the big idea so that the concept is understood in different settings and in multiple forms. The tasks, designed for students with diverse backgrounds and differing levels of abilities, are open ended and require students to make meaningful contributions by working interdependently. Using cooperative learning techniques, students manage their own groups, with the teacher providing specific feedback. Both the group and the individual are accountable for the final product. The program builds a positive self-image by reinforcing the idea that all students have different abilities and by making sure that all students have opportunities to be the group expert.
Social software, such as cooperative online learning, Web logs, podcasts, discussion boards, and wikis, can foster learning within social groupings. Social software promotes connections with students and learning communities in an interconnected world.
Social online learning involves small groups of students who are located at a distance and teacher-designed learning experiences that allow the students to work interdependently by using technologies such as e-mail, social Web sites, blogging, wikis, and text messaging. As in traditional forms of cooperative learning, students focus not only on content but also on the process of working with others. During scheduled online learning activities, students share their knowledge and debate with their peers and experts in real time (
Andrews & Marshall, 2000
). Participating in a virtual classroom, students collaboratively select multidisciplinary topics, conduct research using online databases, and create oral and multimedia presentations.
To build online learning communities, Palloff and Pratt (1999) describe several basic steps that should be taken:
• Define the purpose of the group.
• Create a distinctive gathering place for the group.
• Define norms and a clear code of conduct.
• Allow for a range of member roles and
• Allow for and facilitate subgroups. (p. 24)
In many ways, social online learning is very much like working with others in the traditional classroom. The teacher identifies the knowledge area to be studied and the purpose of the group. Because group members may not have face-to-face meetings, the teacher needs to consider the e-meeting place and how to make it inviting. For example, a teacher and students could create a Web site “playground,” or “library lounge.” Students may also share e-mail and agree on other ways to “meet” and work together.
An array of technologies are available that can engage and motivate learners. Many technologies are ubiquitous and are used in combination in schools, homes, and communities.
Web logs, commonly referred to as blogs, allow both teachers and students to record thoughts, ideas, and emerging understandings in a dynamic space that is viewable by a defined audience, such as peers, teachers, parents, and invited guests.
The students in Allana Gabrielli’s classroom used blogging to research their questions on pollution. Here are several questions that they posed on their blog:
• In what ways has technology been used to monitor and reduce pollution?
• What are the risks of pollution on humans?
• What research studies have been conducted on pollution of Lake Baikal?
Audio and video podcasts can be created when teachers and students collaborate on the production of an audio- or video-based performance, such as an interview, report, or performance. The final product is captured using software and uploaded to a Web site. The podcast becomes available to anyone, anywhere, and at anytime. Podcasts, like Web logs, allow students to participate in authentic learning contexts that reflect their own preferences for sharing and receiving information.
Students studying pollution used podcasts in several ways. When gathering information about pollution, students, working in cooperative learning groups, interviewed and recorded scientists who were studying pollution. The interviews were shared on a class Web site. Students made their group presentations available using podcasts and shared their projects with students around the world.
Discussion forums allow teachers and students to participate in a community-based, asynchronous discussion at a common Web site. A discussion forum is typically organized by topics, or forums, which are commonly established by the teacher. Within each forum, students can post original responses, or threads, to which the teacher or peers can reply.
Discussion forums can sustain engagement by providing a virtual space where students can openly reflect, share and exchange resources and ideas, seek clarification, offer encouragement and support, and construct meaning with one another. The most successful discussion forum is structured in a way that focuses students’ attention on learning. For example, a discussion forum that accompanies a unit on populations of the world might be set up with the following three forums:
• Forum 1: What are the factors that affect population rates of various countries?
• Forum 2: What are the causes of migration of people from one country to another?
• Forum 3: How do infectious diseases affect population growth?
Wikis are Web sites that are coconstructed by a community of learners. The defining characteristics of wikis are that they are collaborative and that many users can edit and comment on published pages on the site almost simultaneously. The learning community defines how the wiki will be used, the content it will convey, and the process for editing and sharing it. Consensus building is continuous as students work with teachers to consider ways in which the wiki can fulfill their common objectives.
Wikis in the Classroom.
Students can use a wiki to
• brainstorm ideas;
• store and organize data and observations;
• build reference lists of relevant Web sites;
• share and collaborate on research projects;
• record group work during discussions and other activities; and
• respond to teacher-directed reflection prompts.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
Focusing on Equity
Appropriate instruction is teaching that is responsive to individual students. Teachers respect and value all students as they develop deep understandings, new skills, attitudes, and beliefs. All students should have equitable and meaningful access to high-quality education. The final outcome of equitable, high-quality, meaningful access to school curricula is the education of all students to their highest potential. Teachers should emphasize a continuum of methods and strategies that support the learning of all students, including the following.
Teachers as Professionals
Teachers can promote high-quality, meaningful access to education for all students by
|
Area |
Focused Strategies |
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• Vary the pace of learning according to individual needs • Create meaningful learning opportunities adapted to diverse learners • Address students’ strengths as well as needs • Provide many opportunities to experience success • Consider individual students’ characteristics when developing, organizing, and delivering instruction |
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Socioemotional |
• Foster a supportive environment that values and appreciates all individuals by increasing opportunities for peer interaction • Assist students in using communication techniques that nurture active inquiry, collaboration, and positive interaction • Foster a sense of self-acceptance, self-understanding, and respect all learners • Teach planning and setting realistic short-term and long-term goals • Teach management of emotions • Collaborate with other professionals, including therapists, counselors, and psychologists |
| Behavioral |
• Establish clear rules or boundaries • Teach socially acceptable behaviors through a variety of strategies • Support students’ needs for downtime and breaks • Emphasize active and involved learning |
• following a professional code of ethics;
• participating in professional development programs;
• being involved in activities that address equity, diversity, and meaningful access to high-quality curricula in all classrooms;
• aligning curricula, teaching strategies, and assessment;
• using instructional materials that are responsive to diverse student populations;
• using assessment instruments that are free of bias;
• technology can be used to encourage and sustain learning; and
• gearing school programs to high-quality access to meaningful participation for all students.
Questions for Reflection
1. How do an array of teaching and learning strategies support learners in classrooms?
2. Write a description of equitable classroom instruction. What types of activities will observers see?
3. In what ways can technology support learning? Reflect on your own experiences and provide examples.
Instructor Guidance
Week 4
Welcome to Week Four of ESE 656:Positive Behavior Supports in the Classroom!
Please be sure to review the Week Four homepage for this course to see:
· The specific learning outcomes for the week
· The schedule overview
· The required and recommended resources
· The introduction to the week
· A listing of the assessments
Next, be sure to read this entire Instructor Guidance page.
In Week Three, you reviewed and practiced using data collection articles. In Week Four you will continue learning about data collection instruments, but you will be deciding on which type of data collection instrument to use. This is an action packed week, so lets get started.
Environment
In a classic study conducted in 1969, researchers Kritchevsky and Prescott (1969) focused on the role of the environment (the room arrangement, the daily schedule, the behavior of others, and the amount of space in the children’s environment) on children’s behaviors. They learned that by changing the environment, parents and teachers/providers could change children’s behavior. For example, an open space in the center of a room proved to be an almost irresistible invitation to run. A space with unpredictable routines and unclear procedures invited wandering, disengagement and rough-housing. To read more about the role of the environment on children’s behaviors click on the two articles below. The second one, especially, has some great tips for how to design space and time such that challenging behaviors are minimized.
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Classroom Design and How it Influences Behavior (Links to an external site.)
·
An Environment that Positively Impacts Young Children (Links to an external site.)
As researchers have come to better understand the role of the environment they have come to better understand some of the nuances involved! For example, did you know that the scale of the physical space is also important? De Long (1994) and his colleagues focused on better understanding how children’ sense of time and their sense of space are related. They discovered that when children were given smaller-scale spaces and child-sized furniture, they engaged in more complex play scenarios faster and longer. In other words, the scale of the space influenced children’s behavior and their use of time. This is an important finding for helping children to learn to better self-regulate as it suggests that our classroom design can help children to experience that sense of engaged self-regulation that psychologist Czikszentmihalyi calls “flow.” To view a fun Ted Talks YouTube video on the concept of flow, view the following video
·
Flow, the Secret to Happiness (Links to an external site.)
Researchers have also discovered that the philosophical underpinnings and beliefs/values of the adults provide an often unconscious framework dictating how use of time and space are conceptualized. In their classic text on classroom administration Seaver and Cartright (1986) linked the use of time and space with maturationist (e.g.Montessori), behaviorist (e.g., Watson), and constructivist (e.g. Piaget) philosophies and beliefs. For example, maturationists tended to value the use of space as a vehicle through which children could feel a “…sense of freedom and mobility” and provided children with many choices and options within a large block of time. Behaviorists, on the other hand, tended to value that same time and space as a way to focus children’s work as they remained in control of what children could access and when they could access it. How do you think time and space should be used in an early learning setting? How do you think it should be used in a primary school (first through third grade setting? How about at home?
Finally, our sense of the appropriate way to behave and the appropriate use of time and space typically varies according to our social context. Young children do not always know how to regulate their behavior based on the social context and this is especially evident when the goals and values of the home are very different from those of the school. What do you think might happen if a child who is raised in a home where many choices and options are available goes to a school setting where they are expected to focus on a single task at hand and choices are not available?
Theory
Parenting 101: Want to learn how to negotiate? Engage a two year old. Want to test what you have learned from your two year old? Engage a teenager. If you have or have ever come in contact with a teanager you will know that teenagers are a different ball game. Teenagers are much more sophisticated in their way of thinking and can blow gaping holes in a parent’s rehearsed defense.
On average children at about the age of thirteen, begin to move from Piaget’s concrete operational stage where they used more inductive logic and trial and error to problem solve, into the formal operational stage where the child is even more capable of more complicated abstract thought and reasoning ability. At the formal operational stage also, the adolescent is able to apply general principles to bring about a specific outcome, whereas in the concrete operational stage, the child was more adept at applying a personal or specific principles to bring about general outcomes.
At the height of physical and neurological development, is socio emotional development. At this stage the adolescent child has to answer two major questions. Who am I and where do I belong in the world? These two questions form the basis of what would constitute the greater portion of the ‘mood swings’ that a teenager goes through. These two questions are also crucial in forming the adolescents self-identity (Elkind, 1978). Erikson said that teenagers typically have to try out a variety of selves before they settle on the single self. So, it can be garnered by this supposition posed by Erikson that the erratic behavior and sometimes-seeming illogical reasoning of teenagers is due to multiple personalities in the teenagers search for the single self. Would you agree?
Indeed, egocentrism is a very prominent feature in any adolescent’s life. However, when parents engage their teenagers constructively and move and guide them towards responsibility as adults this trait becomes less prominent. Research conducted by Joseph Allen at the University of Virginia, states that all parents and their teenagers argue. However, the difference is in the quality of the argument. In Allen’s findings the parents who stated their reasons in calm, confident and persuasive terms achieved more and gained more ground with their teenager that the parents who were sharp toned, defensive and threatening. Furthermore, the adolescents who were constructively engaged in an argument with their parents were more likely to act the same way with their peers. The adolescents in the more negative group were most likely to acquiesce when confronted by peers.
‘When evidence is inconsistent of adolescent’s beliefs, they may dismiss the evidence as being irrelevant or try to re-interpret the evidence to make it consistent with their beliefs (Kail & Cavanaugh 2010, p.204).
Functions of Behavior
All behavior has a function. Functions of behavior fall into one of two categories or six sub-categories centering around gaining or escaping/avoiding consequent events (Alberto & Troutman, 2013).
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Functions of Behavior |
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To Gain |
Attention |
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Tangible: Objects, Activities, or Events |
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Sensory Stimulation: Visual, Olfactory, Gustatory, Kinesthetic, Proprioceptive |
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To Escape/Avoid |
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Tangible: Tasks, Demands, Activities, or Events |
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Sensory Stimulation: Pain, Discomfort |
Assessing the functions of interfering behavior is a key step in teaching appropriate social skills and behavior interventions. Functionally-equivalent replacement behaviors provide evidence-based intervention opportunities.
Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA) is an evidence-based practice used in conjunction with classroom management and is a required component of an individualized education program (IEP) in which a Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP) is deemed appropriate.
In order to determine appropriate strategies and determine a BIP, we must first conduct a FBA. FBA includes formal and informal tools for determining which of the six functions (or combination of functions) of behavior maintain the interfering behavior. FBA is a collaborative information-collecting process. Observational data collection documenting the A-B-C’s surrounding the behavior help to determine patterns of responding and point to the function. FBA results help drive behavior support strategies.
Review some available assessment tools:
FAST
,
MAS
,
A-B-C Analysis
While this week does not deal with the theoretical aspect of behavior it is important to have some background refresher on behavior theory in order to complete this weeks Discussion and Assignment where you will be discussion a hypothesis for the motivation observed and explain why you believe this behavior occurs.
This section includes additional specific assistance for excelling in the discussions for Week Four beyond what is given with the instructions for the assessments. If you have questions about what is expected on any assessment for Week Four, contact your instructor using the Ask Your Instructor discussion before the due date.
Discussion 1: Classroom Incident
For this discussion you will be you will be reviewing your observation recordings from Week Three Discussion Two and providing a hypothesis on why the observed behavior occurred. First, you will attach the three observation forms completed from Week Three Discussion Two. Next you will summarize the antecedent, behavior and consequence conditions from all three observations and describe the function of the behavior and rational for the choice.
Discussion 2: Data Collection
In this discussion, in this discussion you will be using what you are learning this week about data collection from Discussion One and providing a fictional recording of a student’s behavior on an observation recording form. It is important that your discussion is focused around the disability focus you chose during Week One Discussion One. Remember to read the final assignment for this course, before starting on this Discussion as all work in this course lead up to the final Assignment.
Assignment: Visual Interpretation
In this assignment you will be continuing to work on your observation skills. You will read through four case studies, choose one and then report out on your findings using functional assessment tools. Be sure to include your hypothesis for the motivation and explain why you believe this behavior occurs.
Alberto, P.A. & Troutman, A.C. (2013). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
DeLong, A. J.; Tegano, D.W.; Moran, J. D. III; Brickey, J.; Morrow, D.; & Houser, T. L. (1994). Effects of spatial scale on cognitive play in preschool children. Early Education and Development, 5(3), 237-246.
Kail, R. V. & Cavanaugh, J. C. (2010). Human development: A life-span view (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage/Wadsworth.
Kritchevsky, S. & Prescott, E. with Walling, L. (1969). Physical space: Planning environments for young children. Washington, DC: NAEYC.
Neighmond, P. (2012).
Why a teen who talks back may have a bright future (Links to an external site.)
. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2012/01/03/144495483/why-a-teen-who-talks-back-may-have-a-bright-future
Seaver, J. W. & Cartwright, C. A. (1986). Child care administration. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co.
Required Resources
Cohen, L. & Spenciner, L. (2009).
Teaching students with mild and moderate disabilities: Research-based practices
(2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Publication.
· Chapter 2: Understanding Students with Learning Disabilities, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders, and Other Health Impairments
· Chapter 3: Understanding Students with Emotional Disturbance, Mental Retardation, and Autism Spectrum Disorders
· Chapter 10: Promoting Positive Behavior
SMART behavior change outcome (Links to an external site.)
. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.healthedpartners.org/ceu/sm/smart_behavior_change_outcome_objectives
· This article includes information about writing measurable goals and objectives and will assist you in your discussion and assignment this week.
Accessibility Statement does not exist.
Privacy Policy does not exist.
Functional assessment screening tool (FAST)
. (2016). [PDF file]. Florida Center on Self Injury.
Motivation assessment scale
. (2016). [Word doc].
Harkins, J. (2016).
A-B-C Analysis Form
[PDF file].
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S.M.A.R.T. Behavior Change Outcome Objectives
Step 4.2: Write specific, measurable objectives for each intervention activity.
Outcome objectives specify the kind and amount of change you expect to achieve for a
specific population within a given time frame for each intervention.
You have already identified desired program outcomes and written related goals, which may
have been grouped in short-term, intermediate and long-term categories. For example, your
short-term goal may be increasing awareness, your intermediate goal may be changing
attitudes, norms and behavioral intentions, and your long-term goals may be changing
behavior and improving health status. Behavior change can be an intermediate or long-term
goal, depending on the circumstances and how behavior is defined.
Remind yourself that social marketing seeks behavior change:
• to improve the personal welfare of members of the target audience, and
• to benefit society more broadly.
This implies that every aspect of planning should begin at the end—the desired behavior—
and work backward to achieve the behavioral goal.
So, begin with an outcome objective that quantifies the desired behavior change.
Then estimate the amount of change that would be necessary in what each target segment
thinks, feels, knows, intends, and does to reach the ultimate behavioral objective.
For the outcome and each of its determinants, specify:
• Who specifically will be affected?
• What will change?
• How much change will occur?
• By when?
Develop SMART Outcome Objectives
Make sure your outcome objectives are “SMART.”
• Specific
• Measurable
• Achievable
• Relevant
• Time-specific
Examples of SMART outcome objectives are:
• Short term: Increase the proportion of high school youth who report that they
believe the tobacco industry deliberately uses advertising to get young people to
start smoking from 20 percent in January to 60 percent in September.
40
• Intermediate: Decrease the proportion of high school youth who report trying a
cigarette in the last 30 days from 30 percent in 2002 to 20 percent in 2004.
• Long-term: Decrease the number of smoking related premature births beginning in
2006.
Dig deeper into the SMART concept.
• Objectives should be specific. Explicitly state what you want to happen, where and
to whom as a result of your intervention.
o Specific objective: At least 90 percent of county schools will institute campus-
wide no-smoking policies by 2004.
o Non-specific objective: To stop teens from smoking.
• Objectives should be measurable. This means you must identify the current, or
baseline, value and the level or amount of change that is expected. Your funders will
insist on measurements. Measurable objectives will guide evaluation design, allowing
you to track progress, document success or know where interventions aren’t
progressing as planned.
o Measurable Objective: To increase fruit and vegetable consumption among
workers in Montgomery Hospital (the target audience) by 50 percent by June
2003.
o Non-measurable objective: To ensure that the workers in Montgomery
Hospital eat more fruit.
• Objectives should be achievable and realistic. Especially when you aim to change
chronic, addictive behaviors (e.g., overeating, smoking), you may have to settle for
small steps in a long process. If you overreach, your target audience may turn away
completely. Besides, your realism reflects on your credibility. You cannot save the
world with any intervention. But you can make the world a better place in a very
concrete, albeit incremental, way.
o Achievable objective: To reduce marijuana use by youth age 14-16 in Iowa
by 5 percent by December 2004.
o Non-achievable objective: To stop youth from using marijuana.
• Objectives must be relevant, i.e., logically related to your overall goals. Check with
your target audience to ensure that what you hope to achieve in the short run will
get you where you want to be in the long run.
o Relevant objective: Developing pictorial instructions that can be understood
at low reading levels to improve patient compliance with “Back to Sleep”
recommendations among people with low literacy by 10 percent in the next
six months.
o Irrelevant objective (or not relevant enough): To improve patient compliance
among people with low literacy by teaching adults to read better.
• Objectives should be time-specific. Your interventions are limited in time and
space. While you always hope and plan for permanent change, you must be realistic
41
about when to measure the effect that you can achieve. Your funders, partners, and
policymakers will want a report within a realistic time frame. Identify the end point of
your intervention and the points along the way at which you’ll measure progress. If
you have the resources, you could learn a lot about the permanency of your behavior
change and the durability of your intervention by measuring change at a distant
point in the future.
o Time-specific objective: To reduce the proportion of adults in the U.S. who
smoke to 12 percent by 2010 (a specific goal of Healthy People 2010).
o Non-time-specific objective: To reduce the proportion of adults in the U.S.
who smoke to 12 percent.
Step 4.2
Write specific, measurable objectives for each intervention activity. Outcome objectives
convey specifically how much your program must accomplish to be considered successful.
Specific, quantified outcome objectives provide the evaluator with standards against which
to judge the effects of various intervention activities. Your evaluator can help you set
realistic objectives, thus helping to build in a positive evaluation result.
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