Describe either your best training experience, OR your worst training experience.
For your best training experience, what elements of BST were included? What did they do that made you enjoy the training?
For your worst training experience, what elements of BST were missing? What did they do that made you dislike the training?
In either case, to your knowledge, did they collect any measures to evaluate the quality of training? If so, what did they evaluate?
Remember to review the Reflection Paper rubric and instructions for reviewing a peer’s submission in the Important Course Information module.
Additionally, please include LINKS or DOIs to any articles or books referenced outside of the assigned readings as part of your APA citation (
as is required when using web-based referencesLinks to an external site.
). Failing to do so will result in point deductions.
Reflection Paper Rubric (25 points)
Reflection papers consist of brief responses to a prompt related to the information shared in each week’s module. Using
both the assigned materials and external references, the student should thoughtfully and thoroughly respond to the
prompt. During the following week, students will be required to provide feedback on a peer’s reflection paper, and will be
required to paste the text of their completed peer review into their own submission comments in Canvas, which will allow
for the instructor to grade more easily. Reflection paper assignments will be graded as follows:
Category 5 points 3 points 0 points
Reflection Length*
*(excludes reference section
and direct quotes from
references that are longer
than 5 words)
Reflection paper content
was greater than 150
words.
Reflection paper content
was between 100-149
words.
Reflection paper content
was less than 99 words.
Grammar, Usage,
and Spelling
Reflection paper contained
less than 2 grammar,
usage, or spelling errors.
Reflection paper contained
3-4 grammar, usage, or
spelling errors.
Reflection paper contained
more than 5 grammar,
usage, or spelling errors
and proofreading was not
apparent.
References and
Utilization of
Outside
Resources
The author used
references from peer-
reviewed behavioral
sources in APA format and
cited one or more
original behavioral
references, outside of the
assigned readings.
Hyperlinks to the cited
external references are
provided.
The author used
references in APA format
of assigned readings but
did not include an
additional peer-reviewed
behavioral reference or did
not include a hyperlink to
the externally-cited
reference.
The author neither utilized
APA format for referenced
material used nor cited an
outside peer-reviewed
behavioral reference.
Addressing the
Prompt
The author’s reflection
paper clearly responds to
the assignment prompt,
develops ideas cogently,
organizes them logically,
and supports them through
empirical writing.
The author’s reflection
paper clearly responds to
the assignment prompt,
develops ideas cogently,
organizes them logically,
and supports them through
empirical writing.
The author’s reflection
paper does not correspond
with the assignment
prompt, mainly discusses
personal opinions,
irrelevant information, or
information is presented
with limited logic and lack
of development and
organization of ideas.
Application The author’s post clearly
demonstrates application
and relationship to the
week’s assigned
reading/topic.
The author’s post refers to
the assigned topic/reading
tangentially but does not
demonstrate application.
The author’s post does not
demonstrate application of
the week’s assigned
topic/reading.
Peer Review –
Your peer review text
must be copied and
pasted into the comments
of your own reflection
paper submission to
receive credit.
Completes peer-review of
colleague’s reflection paper
and provides well-thought-
out, thorough feedback.
Completes peer-review of
colleague’s reflection
paper, but provides only
vague, non-specific
feedback or input.
Does not complete peer-
review of a colleague’s
reflection paper or does not
copy the text into the
comments section of their
own submission to allow for
grading.
Late reflection papers will adhere to the general submission policy found on the Virtual Course
Schedule.
The Softer Side of Supervision: Recommendations When Teaching
and Evaluating Behavior-Analytic Professionalism
Natalie R. Andzik
Northern Illinois University
Michael P. Kranak
Oakland University
One welcomed addition to the Behavior Analyst Certification Board Fifth Edition Task
List and Supervisor Curriculum (2.0) is the duty of the supervisor to not only teach, but
also evaluate “soft skills,” which we will refer to as behavior-analytic professionalism.
With this addition, supervisors must teach and evaluate skills related to behavior-
analytic professionalism exhibited by their trainees. However, findings from surveys of
supervisors in the field indicate two issues: (1) Few view teaching behavior-analytic
professionalism as part of their responsibilities under the current supervision guide-
lines, and (2) they do not know how to teach these skills. Accordingly, we provide
supervisors with a recommended training model for teaching skills related to behavior-
analytic professionalism, which includes the steps outlined in behavioral skills training.
We outline how to get buy in, operationally define the skills, provide multiple exam-
ples, and how to ensure trainees have adequate practice so that timely and constructive
feedback can be given.
Keywords: supervision, professionalism, teaching, evaluating
The number of individuals seeking certifica-
tion as a board certified behavior analyst
(BCBA), board certified assistant behavior an-
alyst (BCaBA), or registered behavior techni-
cian (RBT) is growing expeditiousl
y.
In 2019,
13,211 (i.e., 6,884 first-time takers and 6,327
repeating takers) individuals sat for the BCBA
exam, and 2,439 (i.e.,1,450 first-time takers and
989 repeating takers) for the BCaBA exam (Be-
havior Analyst Certification Board [BACB],
2019a). Based on the increase of test takers
since 2015 (i.e., an increase of 7,140 and 1,564
test takers, respectively), it follows that a simi-
lar increase in the number of individuals accru-
ing hours to become exam-eligible exists. In
addition, there are 70,361 RBTs (BACB,
2019b)—all requiring supervision from a
BCBA, BCaBA, or an otherwise approved and
noncertified RBT supervisor (BACB, 2018a).
There are just over 30,000 credentialed BCBAs
who are, or can become, eligible to supervise
certification-seeking trainees. This number in-
cludes newly minted BCBAs (LeBlanc & Lui-
selli, 2016) whose supervisory skills may not be
as refined and competent as those who have
supervised for an extended time period. None-
theless, BCBAs who supervise trainees are re-
sponsible with equipping trainees with the skill
sets needed to work directly with clients, and
also interpersonal, or “soft” skills.
“Soft skills” likely contribute to professional
success across a number of fields. From a be-
havior-analytic perspective, this skill set ex-
tends beyond the technical abilities of data col-
lection and designing appropriate client
treatments. A more apt name for this needed
skill set could be behavior-analytic profession-
This article was published Online First June 11, 2020.
X Natalie R. Andzik, Department of Special and Early
Education, Northern Illinois University; X Michael P.
Kranak, Department of Human Development and Child
Studies, Oakland Universit
y.
It is important to note that the information contained in
this article is based on the upcoming changes to the BACB
task list and supervision curriculum. As the field of behavior
analysis continues to evolve, we encourage readers to be
cognizant of updates listed on the BACB website, as well as
read all BACB newsletters.
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
dressed to Natalie R. Andzik, Department of Special and
Early Education, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL
60115. E-mail: nandzik@niu.edu
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Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice
© 2020 American Psychological Association 2021, Vol. 21, No. 1,
65
–74
ISSN: 2372-9414 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bar0000194
65
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6704-9405
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9697-3701
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9697-3701
mailto:nandzik@niu.edu
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bar0000194
alism. Although teaching social and interper-
sonal skills is a requirement outlined in the
updated BACB Supervision Training Curricu-
lum Outline 2.0 (BACB, 2018b), supervisors
report not feeling confident regarding the teach-
ing or evaluation of these skills with their train-
ees (Sellers, Valentino, Landon, & Aiello,
2019). As a result, this area of supervision ac-
tivity for trainees is lacking (DiGennaro Reed &
Henley, 2015; Sellers et al., 2019).
The BACB notes several skills in the Super-
vision Training Curriculum Outline 2.0 (BACB,
2018b) that fall within this category of behav-
ior-analytic professionalism. Supervisors must
teach and evaluate professionalism related to (1)
time management (e.g., measure planned activ-
ities vs. actual activities, adherence to dead-
lines, attendance), (2) organization (e.g., mea-
sure client programming, meeting preparation),
(3) prioritization (e.g., measure appropriate al-
location of time toward tasks based on critical-
ity), (4) social skills (e.g., evaluate posture,
adaption to audience, select appropriate attire),
and (5) interpersonal skills (e.g., social interac-
tions, flexibility). Encouragingly, Sellers, et al.
(2019) recently found that supervision-provid-
ing BCBAs and BCBA-Ds (n � 284) directly
measured their trainees’ interpersonal and com-
munication skills (67.3%), time management
(68.7%), organizational skills (67.7%), and pri-
oritization skills (63.7%). Discordantly, the
same group of supervisors who reported mea-
suring soft skills also indicated that they felt
they did not know how to measure or teach time
management, organization, and interpersonal
communication skills. Also, they did not be-
lieve doing so was within the BACB supervi-
sory requirements to teach these skills. As such,
those findings indicate that responding supervi-
sors did not feel confident in how to teach,
track, and/or evaluate for evidence of positive
outcomes each of the behavior-analytic profes-
sionalism skills listed in BACB’s Supervision
2.0 document. These findings support the need
to address the disparity between adequately
training and supporting supervisors and calling
them into action unprepared.
Board Certified Behavior Analysts must “rely
on professional derived knowledge based on
science and behavior analysis when making sci-
entific judgments” (BACB, 2014). Although
this statement aligns with the hundreds of hours
of instruction BCBAs received in their prepara-
tion for the exam, applying this rigor toward
less objective, behavior-analytic professional-
ism represents a novel, idiosyncratic task. Find-
ing empirically validated, evidence-based prac-
tices related to teaching others how to refine
their “interpersonal skills” or how to be “flexi-
ble” can be a challenge. Thus, BCBAs may
have to think outside what is comfortable and
familiar when teaching and evaluating these
ambiguous, person-specific skills. The chal-
lenge of teaching professional and interpersonal
skills is not unique to the field of behavior
analysis. Professionals in other fields also need
soft skills to be successful. Yet without explicit
instruction and modeling, these skills can be
lacking. For example, individuals in hotel man-
agement rate soft skills as a priority over other
technical skills, but undergraduates in hospital-
ity management degree programs state their
programs lack focus on teaching these skills
(Wilks & Hemsworth, 2012). By taking an ac-
ademic-based approach (i.e., instruction fo-
cused on the principles of applied behavior
analysis) versus an applied approach (i.e., em-
phasis is on the day-to-day practice of the be-
havior analyst), professional development could
often go unaddressed. Therefore, supervisory
experiences should be focused on providing
support and training in settings where supervi-
sion is taking place, rather than taking reiterat-
ing knowledge-based content that should have
been covered in coursework (Hartley, Courtney,
Rosswurm, & LaMarca, 2016).
The new supervision requirements obligate
supervisors to incorporate professional develop-
ment into a trainee’s supervision experience
(BACB, 2018b). Bailey and Burch (2013) sug-
gest that a newly minted BCBA needs to
quickly establish rapport by being friendly,
trustworthy, and charismatic. Well-developed
social skills will likely improve a behavior an-
alyst’s abilities to interact with consumers, re-
gardless of knowledge level. Thus, including
explicit teaching of behavior-analytic profes-
sionalism skills during supervision experiences
would enhance the success of new behavior
analysts and bring supervisory activities in line
with BACB guidelines. As no widely accepted
instructional protocol exists to teach behavior-
analytic professionalism, in the following sec-
tion we provide some recommendations based
on behavioral skill training (BST) to address
this shortcoming.
66 ANDZIK AND KRANAK
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Teaching Behavior-Analytic Professionalism
With BST
Behavioral skills training is an empirically
based training strategy that employs a rationale,
description, and model of the skill prior to ask-
ing the trainee to practice. Immediate corrective
and/or supportive feedback follows this
training
(Parsons, Rollyson, & Reid, 2012). Researchers
and others have used this strategy when teach-
ing skills to a variety of practitioners working in
the field of behavior analysis. In the field of
special education, behavior change following
exposure to BST-based training methods has
been associated with the most consistent im-
provement of implementation fidelity (Brock et
al., 2017). With respect to professional devel-
opment for behavior analysts, BST has been
demonstrated to be effective when teaching
skills that trainees will use throughout their
experience and career, including conducting as-
sessments such as verbal behavior assessments
(Barnes, Mellor, & Rehfeldt 2014), the Promot-
ing the Emergence of Advanced Knowledge
(PEAK) relational training system (Belisle,
Rowsey, & Dixon 2016), preference assess-
ments (Bishop & Kenzer, 2012), and functional
analyses (FAs; Moore et al., 2002; Ward-
Horner & Sturmey, 2012); implementing dis-
crete trial teaching (Fetherston & Sturmey,
2014; Sarokoff & Sturmey, 2004); and estab-
lishing graphing and data interpretation skills
(Kranak, Shapiro, Sawyer, Deochand, & Neef,
2019; Maffei-Almodovar, Feliciano, Fienup, &
Sturmey, 2017). Given the robust nature of the
effectiveness of BST to teach a variety of skills
to a variety of practitioners, this approach likely
has utility when developing strategies for teach-
ing behavior-analytic professionalism skills.
Pre-Step 1: Needs Assessment
In concert with any behavior-analytic pro-
gram that involves teaching new skills, the su-
pervisor should conduct a needs assessment.
The supervisor should conduct the assessment
with the trainee before engaging in the supervi-
sory experience (Garza, McGee, Schenk, &
Wiskirchen, 2018; Luiselli, 2017). The supervi-
sor should start with an interview and ask ques-
tions about the trainee’s indices of profession-
alism to include (1) related BACB policies and
all codes, (2) BACB task list items, and (3)
company-specific policies (see Figure 1 for sug-
gested questions). Next, supervisors should ob-
serve the trainee in settings where these behav-
ior-analytic professionalism skills are required.
Direct observations will help the supervisor
identify and prioritize target skills needing im-
provement and will ensure a personalized ap-
Skill
Not
Observed
Unfamiliar:
Needs
training
Familiar:
Needs a
review
Confident:
Independent
Sample BCBA Standards
Measure planned activities vs. actual activities
Adherence to deadlines
Measures client programming,
Prepared for meetings ahead of time
Measure appropriate allocation of time towards tasks based on criticality
Adjusts own posture, placement
Adapts tone, volume, cadence as it relates to the audience
Communicates with parents, RBTs, Paraeducators, BCaBCAs respectfully,
Adjusts use of jargon, uses people-first language
Sample Company or Hiring Agency Standards
Arrives on time and leaves at stated time
Business casual, closed toed shoes, no visible tattoos or piercings other than in ear
Uses work email / phone when with parents and RBTs and BCaBAs
Professionalism during client sessions (e.g., takes data, does not engage on cell phone, refers to child by
name
All reports due by Friday at 5pm, data sheets uploaded by 8pm daily
Sample Interview Questions:
1. When considering your role as a BCBA, what questions do you have about how to present yourself as a professional?
2. Do you have any concerns about ethical violations (e.g., dual relationships) when interacting with parents, BCaBAs, RBTs or others that might be under your supervision?
3. What is your signature line on your work email? Do you exclusively use your work email when communicating with work-related individuals?
4. What types of clothing do you wear to an IEP or team meeting compared to when you are supervising in home, at school, or in the community?
5. Have you encountered any challenging situations yet in your career when you have had to professionally deescalate an irate parent, practitioner, or professional?
6. What is your social media presence like? Have you recently swept your online profiles to ensure you are portraying yourself in a professional way?
Figure 1. Needs assessment, which can be adjusted to capture all possible behavior-analytic
skills trainees should be engaging in based on their setting.
67BEHAVIOR-ANALYTIC PROFESSIONALISM
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proach for the trainee that addresses specific
settings, expectations, and other skills currently
in the trainee’s repertoire (see BACB Task List
Item 1-3; see Figure 1 for an optional list of
items to cover when conducting the initial needs
assessment).
Step 1: Provide a Rationale
Getting buy-in from the trainee is, poten-
tially, one of the most important first steps
when training less behavioral, more ambigu-
ous and subjective skills such as behavior-
analytic professionalism (Carnegie, 1998;
Daniels, 2016). We suggest supervisors start
the conversation with their supervisee by re-
ferring to the policies and procedures outlined
for a BCBA working in schools, homes, or
other locations, as well as a policy or proce-
dure manual related to the trainee’s current
setting. Supervisors must be aware of the
nuances and differences that exist in the train-
ee’s current placement and where the trainee
might end up after finishing the supervision
hours. For example, if the trainee wants to
work as a BCBA for a clinical company that
provides in-home services, but is currently
accruing experience in a school-based practi-
cum site, the trainee’s behavior is likely to
contact different contingencies given the con-
trast between in-home and school-based set-
tings than if their placement is in a school
setting. Put another way, supervisors should
consider increasing opportunities to practice
the skills the supervisee will rely on when
they transition to their desired context follow-
ing completion of experience hours.
Step 2: Provide a Checklist
Many aspects comprise behavior-analytic
professionalism, so we advise the supervisor
focus on those outlined out by the BACB
(BACB, 2018b) when engaging in a BST ses-
sion with trainees. Supervisors should focus on
one skill at a time when training and should
keep sessions short, ideally less than an hour
(e.g., 15–20 min; Nigro-Bruzzi & Sturmey,
2010).
The supervisor should work with the trainee
to operationally define targeted skills needing
intervention. For example, “You need to im-
prove upon your social skills” is slightly vague
and nonbehavioral. Instead, the supervisor
might include a checklist of categories that en-
compass social skills, including (1) attire (e.g.,
ironed clothes, closed-toed shoes,), (2) atten-
dance (e.g., on time, acceptable absences), (3)
social greetings (e.g., calling clients and care-
givers by name, inquiring about a personal de-
tail such as “How was the family reunion last
weekend?”), and (4) interactions through e-mail
(e.g., use formal greeting, professional signa-
ture, complete sentences, lack of jargon or
slang).These selected skills can come from the
needs assessment cited earlier, but may also
arise during natural conversations or during for-
mal/informal observations of the trainee.
Although some professionalism skills (e.g.,
arriving on time, social greetings) are ubiqui-
tous across settings, some specific components
of skills may depend on the setting in which one
is practicing (Ross, 2007). For example, train-
ees who work with individuals who engage in
severe problem behavior will have entirely dif-
ferent clothing requirements than trainees at-
tending meetings. It may be necessary for train-
ees assessing and treating severe problem
behavior to refrain from wearing piercings of
any kind as a safety precaution. It may also be
acceptable for trainees working with severe
problem behavior to wear comfortable clothing
(e.g., t-shirts, denim jeans) to allow for imple-
mentation of intensive behavioral assessments
such as FAs. In contrast, trainees working with
individuals whose families may have expressed
specific cultural or religious beliefs may always
have to wear clothing that covers tattoos (if
applicable).
Supervisors should decide on one specific
skill to target at a time within each brief BST
session. It is very important for this targeted
skill to be trainee specific. For example, BCBAs
often dress in “business casual” (Bailey &
Burch, 2010). Although this might work for
most, it certainly would not be an appropriate
outfit choice when working with very young
children or supporting students with self-care
needs in the bathroom. It is almost never ac-
ceptable to wear sheer or excessively loose
clothing. However, again, when considering de-
finitive rules about professional attire, the su-
pervisor and trainee should agree on the degree
of attire. Being aware of one’s working envi-
ronment and the acceptable clothing for that
environment could even be considered a part of
the interpersonal skills required to engage in
68 ANDZIK AND KRANAK
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evidence-based practice (Slocum et al., 2014).
Although it may be difficult to undergo a tradi-
tional BST approach for selecting appropriate
attire, one option may be to use an analog to in
vivo situations (e.g., Neef, Iwata, & Page,
1978). Put another way, a supervisor could have
a trainee select the most appropriate attire from
an array of exemplars. Then, at the next possible
opportunity, the supervisor could provide feed-
back on the trainee’s chosen attire for that day.
Figure 2 is an example of a checklist used
during a BST session related to one behavior-
analytic professional skill, interpersonal skills.
Bailey and Burch (2010) highlight interpersonal
communications as one of the 25 essential skills
of a behavior analyst. Although there are many
individuals the trainee will need to exercise
appropriate interpersonal skills with, BST ses-
sions should be focused and short. For that
reason, we have selected interpersonal skills
with the client for this hypothetical BST ses-
sion. Arguably, this could also span seven dif-
ferent BST training sessions, but we listed all
stages for reference.
Step 3: Demonstrate/Role-Play
Supervisors should be aware that the behav-
ior they model during supervision could be im-
itated by their trainees. Thus, if supervisors use
profane language or text during meetings, it is
possible that trainees will imitate these behav-
iors. Trainees are likely to take on similar qual-
ities they observed in their own supervisor, and
thus, supervisors have a responsibility to model
appropriate behavior-analytic behavior (Sellers,
Alai-Rosales, & MacDonald, 2016). These pro-
fessional behaviors might require role-playing
to ensure the trainee understands the concepts
prior to expecting them to practice those behav-
iors themselves. Although sometimes awkward,
supervisors can be creative when role-playing
with supervisees and when seeking a model.
Within these role-play opportunities, it can also
Checklist for interpersonal skills with the client:
Stage 1: Intake
� Be a good listener by maintaining eye contact
� Show confidence in your approach by doing your homework ahead of the meeting
� Be caring by noticing body language of the persons in the meeting
� Have a friendly demeanor by engaging in some small talk prior to the meeting
Stage 2: Present analysis
� Start casual, make your audience comfortable by eliminating jargon,
� Speak in positive-focused statements and highlighting individual strengths of the
child/student/client.
� Present easy-to-consume, visual data to justify your case for services but build this slowly
� Respond to body cues and ask if clarification is needed
� Use anecdotes or stories from your own experience to encourage buy-in
Stage 3: Presenting treatment plan
� Use active listening (e.g., nodding, repeating back statements, use affirmative statements)
� Explicitly state that you are seeking approval for your plan
Stage 4: Training the implementer
� Break tasks down into smaller component steps when training
� Exercise patience when giving instructions
� Make sure to use behavioral skills training when training any practitioner or family
member to implement your plan
� Watch for fatigue and take breaks or spread training over multiple sessions
Stage 5: Once the intervention is in place
� Use specific praise when observing the implementer
� Trouble shoot small issues by owning the mistake as your own during the initial training
� Increase your expectations slowly and use shaping when thinning your schedule of
reinforcement with the implementer
Stage 6: Monitoring, evaluation, maintenance of the plan
� Occasionally check-in with your implementers and review the data with them and
encourage any success in the trends the data is showing
� Give the implementer the credit for any success
Stage 7: Termination
� Hold a final wrap up meeting (or party, depending on your setting) to say goodbye
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
Figure 2. Checklist used during behavioral skill training (BST) when teaching interpersonal
skills.
69BEHAVIOR-ANALYTIC PROFESSIONALISM
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be beneficial for trainees to tact both examples
and non examples of desired skills. See Table 1
for a list of potential exemplars to use when
demonstrating and role-playing skills with the
trainee.
Step 4: Practice Professionalism
Following demonstration and role-play, train-
ees must have an opportunity to practice pro-
fessional skills in a guarded environment rather
than just discuss and observe a skill didactically
(Sawyer et al., 2017). The previous section de-
scribed exposing trainees to various profes-
sional and nonprofessional exemplars through
demonstration/role-play. The supervisor pro-
vided appropriate examples, as well as non-
examples. In addition, the trainee should have
been able to tact both examples and non-
examples of various aspects of professionalism.
Prior to practicing their newly learned skills, the
supervisor should remind the trainee of the
checklist provided in Step 2. In addition to other
skills (e.g., steps implemented correctly when
implementing functional communication train-
ing), the supervisor will be monitoring, the su-
pervisor will now be observing and measuring
the trainee’s adherence to the checklist used in
Step 2 of this training.1
Following practice in a controlled setting
(e.g., role-play), Step 4 of the training includes
the trainees independently practicing what they
have learned with real clients, practitioners, col-
leagues, and family members. In Step 3, it
would have made the most sense for the super-
visor to focus on skills the trainee can immedi-
ately emulate, such as attire, organization, and
prioritization skills. However, there are some
skills that may not naturally arise during the
supervisory experience (i.e., may be unlikely to
observe during supervisory observations). Ac-
cordingly, those should be set up as contrived
opportunities to practice (e.g., role-play) when
necessary.
Step 5: Feedback and Evaluation
Once the trainee has demonstrated mastery of
the skills through role-play, the supervisor can
now take the observation checklist (cited above
in Steps 2 and 4) and critically observe the
trainee in the field. Providing feedback and
evaluating the professional skills of trainees is
not only essential to training (Aljadeff-Abergel,
Peterson, Wiskirchen, Hagen, & Cole, 2017),
but also a critical component of effective super-
vision (BACB, 2018b). Feedback and evalua-
tion allow the supervisor to determine if he or
she is best preparing his or her trainee in the
area of behavior-analytic professionalism. Bai-
ley and Burch (2010) term a group of skills as
“business etiquette” (p. 3) to include attire, so-
cial skills, interpersonal skills, and time man-
agement when interacting with a team—a set-
ting in which behavior-analytic professionalism
culminates and is paramount. As such, see Fig-
ure 3 for an example evaluation checklist when
observing a trainee in a team meeting.
Ongoing feedback and evaluation from the
supervisor. Feedback and evaluation com-
prise, arguably, the most important aspects of
the training process (Aljadeff-Abergel et al.,
2017; Parsons et al., 2012; Ward-Horner &
Sturmey, 2012). Once a trainee has demon-
strated competence through structured training,
has had an opportunity to practice in the field,
and has had initial and immediate feedback
following observations with the supervisor, he
or she needs to be given ongoing and regular
feedback. The supervisor is only required to see
the trainee in the natural setting two times per
month and those can be live, recorded live, or
shared videos after the occurrence. Researchers
have found that more immediate feedback is
more effective than delayed feedback (Brock et
al., 2017). Given the relative infrequency of
minimal BACB supervisory observations (i.e.,
twice a month) and the potential for incorrect
behavior patterns to emerge in the absence of
observation, feedback should be provided as
soon as possible following the observation (e.g.,
same day). If problems do arise, supervisors can
consider using the Performance Diagnostic
Checklist—Human Services (PDC-HS) to iden-
tify employee problems related to environmen-
tal variables (Carr, Wilder, Majdalany, Mathi-
sen, & Strain, 2013). The fourth section in the
PDC-HS relates to soft skills in regard to fre-
quency of monitoring by a superior and regu-
1 This statement is not to say supervisors should take data
on both trainee program implementation and professional-
ism in every observation, as increasing the number of vari-
ables the supervisor measures may impact the quality of the
supervisor’s data. Thus, it may be advantageous to consider
which skillset requires more improvement and subsequent
progress monitoring.
70 ANDZIK AND KRANAK
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larity of feedback. This tool might be useful
when understanding performance problems re-
lated to behavior-analytic professionalism as
well as helping the supervisor create targeted
interventions for the trainee rather than attempt-
ing a quick-fix solution.
Feedback from the trainee. Although this
training is focused on what the trainee is doing
and learning, it is highly recommended before
terminating the training to check in with the
trainee to see what his or her level of accept-
ability is surrounding the training (Turner, Fi-
scher, & Luiselli, 2016). Supervisors should
solicit feedback regarding socially significant
outcomes related to their supervisory effective-
ness. However, it is possible that one common
concern related to trainees providing feedback
to supervisors is the ability for a trainee to speak
openly about his or her supervisor to the super-
visor. If there is a concern, even a modest con-
cern such as “coffee breath,” it may be difficult
for the trainee to share this due to a perception
of feedback affecting the relationship. Turner et
al. (2016) suggested using a self-monitoring
tool as often as biweekly to bring light to the
above concerns. Likert scales might reduce the
need for a trainee to find words to describe
performance that might be problematic to rate
observable behaviors (e.g., on time, uses lit-
erature to guide supervision, gave positive
and corrective feedback). This exercise will
help the trainee give him- or herself insights
on any feelings or any anxieties he or she
wants to share with the supervisor. This can,
in turn, help identify areas of strength and
areas that need improvement. Sellers, LeB-
lanc, and Valentino (2016) suggested that su-
pervisors should be cognizant of and assess
their own behaviors when supervisor–trainee
frustrations first emerge. That is, must the
supervisor change his or her behavior to bring
about change in the trainee’s behavior? We
whole-heartedly agree supervisors must as-
sess when difficulties arise.
The supervisors could request feedback on
several items during this process. Some sugges-
tions of actionable components include (a) level
of the trainee’s engagement during BST, (b)
fluidity of conversations (e.g., back and forth as
opposed to the supervisor doing all of the talk-
ing), (c) supervisor’s willingness to answer
questions, and (d) the trainee’s willingness to
give the supervisor feedback. These compo-
nents are only a starting point of potential com-
Table 1
Multiple Exercises to Consider When Providing Demonstrations of Behavior-Analytic Professionalism
Demonstration Explanation Action
Watch videos The supervisor can pull videos from
various sources and ask the
trainee to observe the behaviors
of others
Watch videos from YouTube1
Debrief after
observing others
After the trainee observes
individuals, the trainee can tact if
the person was or was not
adhering BCBA professionalism
standards
The trainee can (1) first describe what aspect of
professionalism they observed (e.g., attire,
social skills) and (2) identify the violation or
adherence to BCBA or work-related codes of
conduct
Critically evaluate
others
After the trainee observes others in
the field, he/she can evaluate
their professionalism and suggest
recommendations for adjustment
Supervisors might ask something like “What
feedback might you give Nicole on her outfit
today?”
Engage in role-play Use situations where it might be
harder to experience live before
training occurs
Examples might include phone calls with a
difficult parent, interactions with a
challenging RBT, politely declining a social
invitation from a client
Observing the
supervisor
The trainee can watch as their
supervisor engages in behavior-
analytic professionalism in their
own role as a BCBA
Examples of good opportunities to observe
might include (1) while the supervisor is
conducting a staff training, or (2) running a
team meeting
Note. BCBA � board certified behavior analyst; RBT � registered behavior technician.
1 These may contain examples and non examples of the targeted professional behavior.
71BEHAVIOR-ANALYTIC PROFESSIONALISM
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ponents supervisors should evaluate. Additional
components may, and should, be individualized
based on the supervisor–trainee relationship and
goals of that supervisory experience.
Conclusion
Supervisors are entrusted with the respon-
sibility of ensuring 1,500 hrs (independent
fieldwork; increasing to 2,000 in January of
2022; BACB, 2017) of supervised experience
to be meaningful, ethical, professional, and
rigorous. Although trainees require a mini-
mum of 75 hrs (to increase to 100; BACB,
2017) of time with the supervisor (i.e., 5% of
1,500 or 5% of 2,000), prior to the changes in
the supervision curriculum (2018), little em-
phasis had been placed on ensuring trainees
are capable in their behavior-analytic profes-
sionalism before concluding the supervision
experience.
Supervisors must not only train behavior an-
alysts competent in the science and practice of
behavior analysis, but also need to teach behav-
ior-analytic professionalism skills and evaluate
trainees’ level of performance on these skills.
Trainees are likely to model supervision prac-
tices and behaviors of past supervisors (Sellers,
Alai-Rosales, & MacDonald, 2016). Thus, be-
havior analysts’ supervision serves as an impe-
tus for creating either ethical, competent prac-
titioners or unqualified, potentially detrimental
supervisors. The BACB takes a powerful stance
with its changes to the 5th Edition Task List.
These changes effectively compel supervisors
to intentionally evaluate this ambiguous skill set
of behavior-analytic professionalism. Accord-
ingly, we have provided some strategies, rec-
ommendations, and tools to serve as a starting
point for that structured teaching and active
evaluation of behavior-analytic professional-
ism.
Behavioral skills training has been used to
effectively change the behaviors of many prac-
titioners in the field (Brock et al., 2017). Thus,
this training strategy presents an opportunity for
researchers to experimentally validate this prac-
tice when training future and practicing behav-
ioral analysts’ soft skills. Behavioral skills
training has been demonstrated to be a robust,
successful training approach, but intentional re-
search on its utility in this particular area would
be welcomed. We encourage others, supervisors
and researchers alike, to consider taking a more
behavior-analytic approach to teaching those
professional skills. As behavior analysts, we
have the skillset to objectively and diligently
monitor and assess this critical skillset of our
trainees. It is time that we do so.
Behavior-Analytic Professionalism: Business Etiquette
Behavior
Observed,
Professional
Not
observed
Observed, errors made (Make a
note for feedback)
Arrived on time
Greeted each member by
name
Introduces self
Appropriate attire (i.e.,
business casual)
Appropriate language (e.g.,
missing jargon, sang,
swearing)
Cell phone off or away
Takes notes, handwritten
(Meeting over a meal) Accept
any refreshments offered
(Meeting over a meal)
Appropriate table manners
Figure 3. A sample checklist to use when evaluating presence or absence of behavior-
analytic professionalism during a meeting.
72 ANDZIK AND KRANAK
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scholar.org/9dba/a6e12d41261d0f15d9082ced79
bd6f212b01
Received August 21, 2019
Revision received May 15, 2020
Accepted May 18, 2020 �
74 ANDZIK AND KRANAK
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2002.35-73
http://dx.doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1978.11-331
http://dx.doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1978.11-331
http://dx.doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2010.43-757
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF03391819
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0100826
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0100826
http://dx.doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2004.37-535
http://dx.doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2004.37-535
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40617-017-0198-4
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40617-017-0198-4
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40617-016-0144-x
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40617-016-0144-x
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40617-016-0142-z
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40617-016-0142-z
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40617-019-00367-0
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40617-019-00367-0
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40614-014-0005-2
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40614-014-0005-2
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40617-016-0121-4
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40617-016-0121-4
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bin.1339
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9dba/a6e12d41261d0f15d9082ced79bd6f212b01
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9dba/a6e12d41261d0f15d9082ced79bd6f212b01
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9dba/a6e12d41261d0f15d9082ced79bd6f212b01
Teaching Behavior-Analytic Professionalism With BST
Pre-Step 1: Needs Assessment
Step 1: Provide a Rationale
Step 2: Provide a Checklist
Step 3: Demonstrate/Role-Play
Step 4: Practice Professionalism
Step 5: Feedback and Evaluation
Ongoing feedback and evaluation from the supervisor
Feedback from the trainee
Conclusion
References
SPECIAL SECTION: SUPERVISION PRACTICES
Towards a Competency-Based, Ethical, and Socially Valid
Approach to the Supervision of Applied Behavior
Analytic Trainees
Laura B. Turner1 & Aaron J. Fischer2 & James K. Luiselli3
# Association for Behavior Analysis International 2016
Abstract Competency-based supervision of trainees has re-
cently come to the forefront of behavior analytic practice;
however, there are minimal data to support the effectiveness
of various supervision practices on trainee outcomes.
Accordingly, this paper is intended to spark further discussion
and research activity regarding the supervision of those seek-
ing to become Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBA).
We present a practice model and considerations for supervis-
ing applied behavior analytic trainees consistent with the
Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) Supervisor
Training Curriculum Outline (Behavior Analyst Certification
Board, 2012b), the Professional and Ethical Compliance Code
for Behavior Analysts (Behavior Analyst Certification Board,
2014), and extant literature from behavior analysis and related
fields. Inherent to the current model is a focus on bi-
directional feedback and collaboration between the supervisor
and trainee to frequently evaluate the acceptability of the pro-
cedures, process, outcomes, and effectiveness of supervision.
We present a Supervision Monitoring and Evaluation Form
consistent with the current model and discuss the assumed
importance of objective and subjective self-assessment of su-
pervisor competence to the ultimate advancement of the prac-
tice of applied behavior analysis.
Keywords Applied behavior analysis . Competency-based
supervision . Social validity . Supervision evaluation form .
Trainee
Supervision is a crucial activity of most Board Certified
Behavior Analysts (BCBA) and is especially important given
the growing number of applied behavior analytic trainees and
the expanding demand for applied behavior analysis (ABA)
services worldwide. It is generally assumed that quality super-
vision will contribute to the development of effective and
ethical practitioners, protection of clients, and advances in
the field. Initial research also suggests that the intensity of
supervision provided by applied behavior analysts is positive-
ly related to clinically significant improvements in client per-
formance (Eikeseth, Hayward, Gale, Gitlesen, & Eldevek,
2009). However, until recently, there were minimal standards
on how to provide a valuable supervision experience for
trainees. In 2011, the Behavior Analyst Certification Board
(BACB) initiated a Supervision Task Force to develop defin-
itive supervision guidelines and training standards for the field
(Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2011). Resulting from
this task force were minimal competencies required of those
providing supervision to individuals pursuing a BACB certi-
fication or practicing as Board Certified Assistant Behavior
Analysts (BCaBA) or Registered Behavior Technicians (RBT;
Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2012b). Relevant is-
sues were designing a supervision contract, implementing be-
havioral skills training (BST), and delivering frequent perfor-
mance feedback.
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article
(doi:10.1007/s40617-016-0121-4) contains supplementary material,
which is available to authorized users.
* Laura B. Turner
lbturner@usj.edu
1 University of Saint Joseph, 1678 Asylum Avenue, West
Hartford, CT 06117, USA
2 University of Utah, 1721 Campus Center Drive, Salt Lake
City, UT 84112, USA
3 Clinical Solutions, Inc. and North East Educational and
Developmental Support Center, 1120 Main Street,
Tewksbury, MA 01940, USA
DOI 10.1007/s40617-016-0121-4
Published online: 28March 2016
Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40617-016-0121-4
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s40617-016-0121-4&domain=pdf
Underlying this competency-based approach is the as-
sumption that, rather than Bosmosis^ (Falender &
Shafranske, 2012, p. 133), supervision is an independent area
of practice and requires acquisition, refinement, and mainte-
nance of skills; although strong clinical and research skills are
essential to being a competent supervisor, these skills alone do
not automatically equate to strong supervisory skills.
Attention is now being given to the development of supervisor
competencies and identification of effective components of
supervision, a process mirrored by several other helping pro-
fessions, such as social work (Kraemer-Tebes et al., 2011),
psychology (American Psychological Association, 2015;
Falender et al., 2004), and medicine (Frank et al., 2010).
The purpose of this paper is to present a practice model
that integrates evidence-based training and supervision
practices with the complex ethical and practical consider-
ations regarding supervision. Because there are currently
limited data on the effectiveness of supervision and specif-
ic supervision practices in developing well-trained
BCBAs, BCaBAs, and RBTs, the current model is guided
by the supervisory experiences of the authors, extant liter-
ature from behavior analysis and related fields, the BACB
Supervision Training Curriculum Outline (Behavior
Analyst Certification Board, 2012b), and the newly devel-
oped Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for
Behavior Analysts (Behavior Analyst Certification Board,
2014), which now more comprehensively reflects the pro-
fessional responsibilities of supervisors. Some of these rec-
ommendations may be time-consuming and go beyond the
requirements of the BACB; however, these points of con-
sideration on the application of existing supervisory and
ethical guidelines may enhance supervisory practice.
Note that we have adopted the term Btrainee^ throughout
to refer to BCBA and BCaBA candidates, as well as prac-
ticing BCaBAs and RBTs as they require ongoing super-
vision and cannot practice independently.
Within this framework, we review the many competen-
cies required of supervisors including fluency with the eth-
ical guidelines regarding supervision, effective training
techniques across basic and complex skill areas (e.g., clin-
ical decision-making and professionalism), and perfor-
mance feedback methods to support acquisition and main-
tenance of skills. Our premise is that the implementation of
an evidence-based approach within a positive, collabora-
tive, and individualized environment fosters a well-
rounded and effective trainee. We also provide examples
and considerations for how to incorporate these competen-
cy areas into a practice repertoire in which supervisor be-
havior, in addition to trainee behavior, is frequently evalu-
ated and modified based on trainee feedback and progress.
Focus is placed on the use of social validity measures to aid
in the ongoing adjustment of supervisory behavior and the
ongoing self-assessment of the supervisor.
Practice Model for Behavior Analytic Supervision
Set the Occasion for Collaborative and Ethical
Supervision
A strong and collaborative supervisory relationship is widely
acknowledged as contributing to the quality and effectiveness
of clinical supervision across several other disciplines (e.g.,
Bernard & Goodyear, 2014; Bordin, 1983; Falender et al.,
2004). Although notoriously complex and difficult to objec-
tively define and measure, the supervisory relationship is typ-
ically defined in two parts. In behavior analytic terms, the first
part can be described as the degree to which a supervisor and a
trainee are mutual discriminative stimuli for generalized rein-
forcement (i.e., Brapport^ as discussed by Carr and colleagues,
1997, p. 111). Carr and colleagues (1997; Magito,
McLaughlin, & Carr, 2005) further discuss rapport as a setting
event and demonstrate that the development of rapport is a key
aspect to approaching skill development. Although their dis-
cussion is specific to individuals with developmental disabil-
ities, the basic behavioral principles behind their observations
have clear implications for the supervisor-trainee relationship.
As an example, the relative rapport between a supervisor
and trainee may impact the trainee’s approach behavior to-
wards the supervisor. If a supervisor does not function as a
cue for reinforcement (or the supervisor functions as a cue for
punishment), it is likely that the trainee will avoid the super-
visor and instead seek out others, including non-behavior an-
alysts, for guidance and feedback. While the specific behav-
iors required to develop rapport within the context of the su-
pervisory relationship have not yet been systematically iden-
tified, a few face valid examples that may assist supervisors in
establishing themselves as reinforcers include being ap-
proachable (e.g., visibility and nonverbal behaviors) and re-
sponsive (e.g., to emails), using more positive statements rel-
ative to negative (e.g., 4:1 ratio; Daniels & Bailey, 2014), and
demonstrating undivided attention towards the trainee during
meetings. Importantly, these behaviors certainly do not ensure
that the supervisor will produce a competent trainee, and other
variables are also likely to impact the degree to which the
trainee approaches the supervisor with relevant issues and
questions (e.g., supervisor competency).
The second component of the supervisory relationship can
be described as the degree to which a supervisor and trainee
generate mutually agreed upon expectations and goals for su-
pervision and engage in behavior consistent with those expec-
tations and goals. The supervision contract, a requirement of
BACB approved supervision (Behavior Analyst Certification
Board, 2015), can be used to guide the development of the
supervisory relationship and the terms of supervision (see
Guideline 5.05; Behavior Analyst Certification Board,
2014). The contract fosters an initial and collaborative discus-
sion between a supervisor and trainee with regard to the nature
288 Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298
of the professional relationship and the expectations and re-
sponsibilities of each member. Supervisors can use this dis-
cussion to model shared expectations and commitment to the
supervision process.
Self-report data from related fields suggests that a poor
supervisory relationship is related to a trainee’s decreased
willingness to disclose relevant clinical information (Mehr,
Ladany, & Caskie, 2015) and follow through with a supervi-
sor’s recommendations (Ladany, Hill, Corbett, & Nutt, 1996),
as well as increased likelihood of burnout (Gibson, Grey, &
Hastings, 2009). However, to what extent the quality of the
supervisory relationship influences the outcomes of supervi-
sion is unknown and should be a focus of future research (see
an extended discussion below). Until then, we hypothesize
that the development of a technically skilled, ethical, and pro-
fessional behavior analyst may potentially suffer without the
presence of a strong supervisory relationship. Thus, an impor-
tant first, and ongoing, step in the supervision process may be
to build a strong supervisory relationship. As part of, or in
addition to the supervision contract, we suggest supervisors
participate in the following discussions with trainees to further
establish mutual expectations for the supervision experience
and ensure consideration of relevant ethical guidelines in an
effort to avoid potential harm to trainees and the professional
supervisory relationship.
Define the Relationship The first step in any professional
relationship is to define basic and fundamental expectations
between participating individuals. While there are clear exam-
ples of inappropriate supervisory relationships that often do
not necessitate a lengthy initial discussion (e.g., sexual
relationships; see Guideline 1.07; Behavior Analyst
Certification Board, 2014), subtle aspects of the supervisory
relationship may be unclear to the trainee and should be clar-
ified. The supervisory relationship can be confusing as the
supervisor may serve as a teacher, mentor, evaluator, and fa-
cilitator of self-assessment and growth, all of which are over-
lapping roles and imply a slightly different style of profession-
al interaction and power differential. For example, a supervi-
sor is commonly defined as someone who oversees certain
activities and holds evaluative power over the trainee, while
a mentor is often described as a trusted advisor and confidant.
Further, the everyday practice of behavior analysis can be
stressful, often physically and mentally exhausting, making
initial discussion of a supportive relationship beneficial.
While all these roles are supervisory in nature and holding
these roles concurrently with a trainee does not necessarily
constitute a multiple relationship as defined by the BACB
(Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2014), supervisors
may find themselves differentially allocating their time across
several of these roles depending on the current context of
supervision and the trainee’s experiences. It may be beneficial
to discuss these potentially changing roles at the outset of
supervision and to engage in self-assessment and monitoring,
as well as peer consultation, to ensure the role fits the current
needs of the trainee while still within the parameters of a
professional relationship.
Further, trainees will already have negative and/or positive
experiences working with people in these various roles and
may have preconceived expectations about the nature of the
current supervisory relationship. For example, trainees with
past supervisors who did not encourage collaboration may
be reticent to present contrasting ideas or raise concerns with
their new supervisors. It may be fruitful for supervisors to ask
trainees about their definition of supervision and their previ-
ous experiences being supervised (whether or not in behavior
analysis) and to discuss how their definition and experiences
align with those of the supervisor and the most recent version
of the BACB Experience Standards (i.e., Behavior Analyst
Certification Board, 2015). Also important is the verbal rec-
ognition of and sensitivity to the fact that the supervisory
relationship can be impacted by beliefs, values, and interper-
sonal biases shaped by previous experiences. Discussing such
issues may reduce the likelihood of dissimilar views and ex-
pectations regarding the supervision process.
Paying for supervision further complicates the role of the
supervisor and trainee. Many individuals seeking a BACB
credential do not have access to local or Bin-house^ BCBAs
who are approved to provide supervision. This challenge re-
quires those seeking supervision to identify approved BCBA
supervisors in their community or even across great distances
(through videoconferencing). When seeking supervision
through this format, supervisors typically charge an hourly
rate, which is determined by the supervisor and payment for
supervision services must be discussed with the trainee at the
onset of the supervisory relationship. Since trainees pay for
services in this arrangement, the supervisor and trainee must
consider any potential negative impact payment may have on
the professional supervisory relationship.
Performance Expectations It is important to clearly define,
outline, and agree upon the performance expectations and
responsibilities of both the trainee and supervisor. Dual re-
sponsibilities foster a give-and-take relationship and allow
for shared accountability. To ensure a clear understanding of
the expectations of the trainee and supervisor according to the
BACB, we recommend reviewing the BACB Experience
Standards (Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2015) at
the outset of supervision, even if the trainee has already ac-
crued supervision hours with another supervisor. It is also
important to identify any idiosyncratic expectations of the
trainee and/or supervisor that, if not discussed, may place
stress on the supervisory relationship. Such expectations
may be that both parties must contact each other at least
24 h in advance to reschedule or that both parties will respond
to email correspondence within 48 h.
289Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298
The degree to which either a trainee or supervisor can con-
sistently complete the agreed-upon responsibilities is often
impacted by an individual’s time and competing commit-
ments. Conducting an analysis of time for both parties is one
method for outlining reasonable responsibilities. With regard
to the supervisor’s time, consider a supervisor supervising one
trainee who is accruing 30 h/week of Supervised Independent
Fieldwork. Per the Experience Standards (Behavior Analyst
Certification Board, 2015), this equates to 3 h of supervision
for every 2-week supervisory period (i.e., 5 % of total accrued
hours); however, 3 h of supervision almost always requires
more than 3 h of time. Often overlooked in the initial calcula-
tion of time is (a) travel time to and from the trainee’s work-
place for direct observations (i.e., if different from the super-
visor’s workplace and if audio-video recording or videocon-
ferencing is not viable), (b) travel time to and from supervision
meetings (i.e., if videoconferencing is not an option), (c) time
to search for appropriate articles and resources for the trainee,
and (d) time to read (or re-read) those articles. Additional time
is required in responding to trainee emails, reviewing trainee
permanent products, giving detailed feedback during the su-
pervision meeting, completing performance evaluations,
documenting various aspects of the supervision process
(e.g., remediation), and seeking peer feedback, and/or consul-
tation with regard to the supervisory behaviors of the supervi-
sor. Taken together, these activities can quickly increase those
3 h every 2 weeks to 6 h or more every 2 weeks! We encour-
age supervisors and trainees to complete this activity together
to establish appropriate workloads and expectations for both
parties (see Guideline 5.02; Behavior Analyst Certification
Board, 2014).
Evaluation of Performance Expectations One of the main
responsibilities of supervisors is to consistently evaluate and
document trainee performance. This matter is often an area of
trainee distress and an area without strict guidelines, so it is
crucial to gain initial agreement about the behaviors to be
evaluated (e.g., technical, professional, and ethical), the eval-
uation process, and the consequences of poor performance
evaluations. Agreeing on the terms of a poor evaluation of
the trainee beforehand may make execution of the set conse-
quences more straightforward and perhaps have fewer nega-
tive side effects. Include in the guidelines clear, objective and
measureable circumstances for all consequences. For exam-
ple, at what point will a remedial plan be developed (e.g., after
3 consistent supervisory periods of unsatisfactory perfor-
mance), what will the remedial plan consist of (e.g., an addi-
tional individual meeting with the supervisor, extra readings),
and what is the consequence of performing poorly during, or
not completing, the remediation (e.g., supervisor terminating
the relationship)? Lastly, if the relationship is ultimately ter-
minated, it will be important to pre-determine what, if any,
hours the supervisor will approve.
Supervisors are highly encouraged to seek feedback from
trainees concerning their performance as a supervisor and
their ability to follow through with the agreed upon expecta-
tions. We recommend communicating the value of this ap-
proach to the trainee at the outset of supervision to further
create a sense of shared accountability with respect to
obtaining the goals of the supervisory relationship.
Obtaining candid information from trainees can be difficult
(Mehr, Ladany, & Caskie, 2010), and supervisors must con-
sider the inherent power differential; however, a strong super-
visory relationship between the supervisor and trainee and an
expectation of the reciprocal nature of feedback is hypothe-
sized to counteract this limitation.
Confidentiality The BACB Professional and Ethical
Compliance Code (Behavior Analyst Certification Board,
2014) states that behavior analysts have a primary obligation
to protect the confidentiality of the individuals they supervise
(Guideline 2.06). Confidential information in a supervisory
relationship predominantly includes performance evaluations,
such as written reviews or ratings on evaluation forms. It may
be beneficial to initially communicate to trainees that this in-
formation will be kept out of public sight and only discussed
with others that have a clear, professional reason for being
concerned with such matters, such as a trainee’s on-sight su-
pervisor. It may also be beneficial to let trainees know that
individual corrective feedback will be given in private and not
during group supervision sessions.
Given the sometimes close, professional relationships that
can develop through supervision, the trainee may disclose
personal information germane to his or her behavior analytic
work. As an example, a trainee may acknowledge an interper-
sonal conflict with a professional colleague. Direct conversa-
tion about the confidentiality of such disclosures may increase
the likelihood that a trainee approaches their supervisor con-
fidently and without fear of disclosure so that the issue may be
discussed and an appropriate solution determined.
Remote Supervision With the advent of contemporary vid-
eoconferencing technology, behavior analytic supervision can
occur remotely by interacting through live two-way audio-
video communication across the Internet or cellular networks.
Supervision through videoconferencing allows supervisors to
engage in supervision sessions with trainees without having to
be in the same physical location, which results in reduced
travel time, increased savings associated with travel costs,
and the potential to provide supervision for individuals in rural
or hard to reach areas who may not have access to locally
qualified behavior analysts.
Despite these benefits, supervision conducted through vid-
eoconferencing also poses many potential challenges. These
challenges include breaches of client confidentiality, technical
difficulties, and lack of physical presence of a supervisor
290 Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298
during high-risk situations (Florell, 2016). Supervision con-
ducted via videoconferencing must ensure client confidential-
ity by facilitating sessions through HIPAA and FERPA com-
pliant videoconferencing software (e.g., Adobe Connect,
Vidyo, VSee); however, due to perpetual changes to video-
conferencing software, supervisors should thoroughly scruti-
nize potential software before using it during remote supervi-
sion. Readers are also encouraged to review Cavalari, Gillis,
Kruser, and Romanczyk (2015) for an extended discussion
regarding digital sharing and storage of audio-visual
recordings.
Regarding technical difficulties, supervisors and trainees
should be familiar with the videoconferencing software that
is used, ensure that they have the required hardware for high-
quality videoconferencing (e.g., 720p or higher resolution
webcam, high bandwidth Internet connection, computer/lap-
top/tablet with fast processing speed), and become familiar
with the evidence-based practice guidelines for telemental
health services (cf. Grady et al., 2011). To guarantee support
for trainees during high-risk situations, the supervisor should
develop a plan with the trainee so that an on-site supervisor is
available or the supervisor can be reached by phone (Abbass
et al., 2011; Panos, Panos, Cox, Roby, & Matheson, 2002).
Termination of the Relationship Just as expected with cli-
ents, the parameters of planned or unplanned termination of
the supervisory relationship should be discussed at the outset
of supervision (Guideline 2.15; Behavior Analyst
Certification Board, 2014). The BACB encourages trainees
to accrue experience hours with different supervisors.
Accordingly, an initial conversation about the number of su-
pervisors trainees have already worked with and the number
of experience hours trainees have accrued is warranted to de-
termine a mutually agreed upon duration for the current su-
pervisory relationship. Additionally, if the trainee is transfer-
ring to another supervisor, we encourage the previous super-
visor to speak with the new supervisor about the strengths and
weaknesses of the trainee and current goals. This dialogue
should be initiated with approval from the trainee. In the event
of an unplanned termination such as the supervisor changing
employers, development of a contingency plan will ensure the
trainee continues to receive supervision.
Baseline Assessment of Trainee Skills
Although there are no standard procedures to initially assess
trainee skills, we can incorporate strategies from the field of
behavior analysis to guide our evaluation. We suggest the fol-
lowing methods as strategies to evaluate trainee baseline per-
formance across various skills: behavioral observation, infor-
mal assessment, review of course syllabi, discussion with pre-
vious supervisors, and review of the BACB Fourth Edition
Task List (Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2012a).
Using these indirect and direct methods, the supervisor and
trainee are able to collaboratively develop goals that are objec-
tive, measureable, and obtainable (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007; Daniels & Bailey, 2014). We will discuss each of these
strategies and their contribution to assessing trainee skills.
Behavioral observation, the basis of all behavior analytic
work, requires a behavior analyst to operationally define be-
haviors of interest and subsequently record the occurrence of
those behaviors. In the context of supervision, a supervisor
should observe and record specific trainee behavior such as
the extent to which an intervention or behavioral support plan
is implemented with integrity (Gresham, Gansle, & Noell,
1993), verbal behavior of a trainee as they interact with staff,
colleagues, clients, or parents, and reliability of trainee behav-
ioral observation through assessment of inter-observer agree-
ment (Cooper et al., 2007).
Informal (formative) assessment, although not behavioral,
is useful to gather information from a trainee. This type of
assessment is frequently used in education (Dunn &
Mulvenon, 2009) and is achieved through conversations with
trainees about their previous experiences, completion of
checklists, and review of writing samples or portfolios. Such
assessment should combine records review, semi-structured
interview, and discussion about the areas of practice as a be-
havior analyst. The informal assessment should be used to
gather information about past experience but also specific
areas of strength and weakness. Additionally, as an ongoing
skills assessment, supervisors should ask questions of the
trainees to evaluate their knowledge of behavioral procedures
(e.g., BWhat were the four test conditions of the Iwata, Dorsey,
Slifer, Bauman, and Richman (1994) functional analysis
[FA]?^). Depending on trainees’ understanding of the FA lit-
erature and their prior implementation history, supervisors
should ask follow-up questions (e.g., BWhat are pros and cons
regarding the manymodifications to the original—Iwata et al.,
1994—FA?^). These types of questions allow supervisors to
gauge trainees’ skills and trainees’ responses provide a base-
line assessment of their ability to think critically and discuss
behavior analytic theory broadly or more acutely.
Review of course syllabi with the trainee is quite useful
when assessing skills. In a collaborative format within super-
vision sessions, the supervisor and trainee may benefit from
discussing the topics covered in the trainee’s BACB-approved
coursework. Independent of the supervision session, the super-
visor is encouraged to review the syllabi to ensure that relevant
readings have been assigned—this action provides the oppor-
tunity to introduce readings to the trainee that might not have
been assigned. The benefit of assigning readings within the
supervision context is, as a supervisor, you can work individ-
ually with your trainee and critically analyze and discuss the
behavior analytic literature. Subsequently, reviewing articles is
assumed to teach critical thinking that is essential for applied
work and preparation for the upcoming BACB exam.
291Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298
Discussion with previous supervisors is a valuable way to
assess a trainee’s skill set; however, the availability and ease of
these options is variable depending on the practicum site. For
example, if trainees receive their experience hours at a large
human service provider with multiple schools within the or-
ganization, trainees might change schools or classrooms. In
this situation, the supervisors might change as well, leaving
the opportunity for discourse between the prior and current
supervisor.
Finally, it is recommended that the supervisor and
trainee jointly review the BACB Fourth Edition Task List
(Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2012a) and use the
document as a checklist of areas the trainee has already
mastered and those that are still in need of instruction and
practice.
Methods to Teach and Promote Skills
Acknowledging that trainees have varying levels of skills,
supervisors can expect at some point that they will need to
directly and systematically teach new skills. Importantly, the
supervisor must attempt to match teaching techniques and
performance expectations to the trainee’s current perfor-
mance. For example, a novice trainee might not be fluent with
all the different approaches to conducting preference assess-
ments. In this case, the supervisor could indirectly discuss
methods and provide relevant literature for the trainee to read
about the topic and improve his or her knowledge. For the
trainee who is familiar with the literature on preference assess-
ments but has not actually conducted such an assessment with
a client, the supervisor could model correct procedures. Lastly,
for the trainee who has mastered designing and implementing
preference assessments, the supervisor could speak with the
trainee about possible modifications to implementing prefer-
ence assessments and/or ask that the trainee uses behavioral
approaches to teach the skill to another staff member or parent.
In each of the cases described above, the supervisor en-
gages in different behaviors and those behaviors are appropri-
ate to the trainee’s skill set. Taking the time to comprehensive-
ly evaluate the current skill level of a trainee and set appropri-
ate behavioral goals and expectations may allow for a more
positive and successful supervisory experience for the trainee.
As well, this strategy allows supervisors to provide ample
amounts of positive feedback to trainees. If supervisors are
unaware of trainees’ current skill set, supervisors might pro-
vide a type and/or level of supervision that is inappropriate,
and run the risk of confusing or overwhelming trainees, which
in turn may potentially harm a client (see Guideline 5.03;
Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2014).
Within this individualized framework, it is expected that
supervisors use behavioral skills training (BST) to develop
novel skills among trainees (Behavior Analyst Certification
Board, 2012b). BST is ubiquitous in the behavior analytic
literature (Rosales, Stone, & Rehfeldt, 2009) and shown to
be effective for skill acquisition in typically developing chil-
dren (Himle, Miltenberger, Flessner, & Gatheridge, 2004;
Jones, Kazdin, & Haney, 1981; Yeaton & Bailey, 1978), chil-
dren with autism (Gunby & Rapp, 2014), teachers and para-
professionals (Lavie & Sturmey, 2002; Sarokoff & Sturmey,
2004), and parents (Himle & Wright, 2014; Seiverling,
Williams, Sturmey, & Hart, 2012; Shayne & Miltenberger,
2013). In the context of supervision, BST involves providing
a rationale to the trainee about the skills to be acquired, sys-
tematic instruction of skills to the trainee, modeling the previ-
ously taught skills to the trainee, rehearsal of the skills by the
trainee (i.e., either in vivo or role-play), and supervisor posi-
tive and corrective feedback to the trainee about his or her
performance of the skills (Behavior Analyst Certification
Board, 2012b; Parsons, Rollyson, & Reid, 2012). Despite
the effectiveness of BST, to our knowledge, there are no be-
havioral studies that have evaluated BST to teach skills (i.e.,
especially relatively complex skills) to individuals pursuing a
BACB certification.
It is also expected that supervisors model technical, profes-
sional, and ethical behavior (Behavior Analyst Certification
Board, 2012b). The behavior of the supervisor is at the foun-
dation of competency-based supervision. Ideally, a trainee
looks up to the supervisor to learn how to behave in a variety
of situations. As a supervisor, modeling technical behavior is
important for many skills, such as the language we use to
discuss behavior analysis and for the work we conduct with
individuals. A supervisor should demonstrate mastery of the
formal terminology of ABAwhile being competent with col-
loquial speech when conversing with a layperson. Supervisors
should teach their trainees both the formal and informal ways
of discussing terminology, while explaining the limitations of
using jargon with their constituents.
In addition to the technical language, supervisors should
also model technical competency when working with individ-
uals. Throughout the supervision process, the supervisor
might need to Bjump in^ with the trainee and demonstrate
how to implement a certain procedure with fidelity. As such,
the supervisor must stay current on their clinical practice.
Similar to professional athletes, a technically sound supervisor
should be able to model technical skills and Bmake it look
easy.^ Not only should supervisors model technical skills,
they should also model professional and ethical behavior.
Professional and ethical behavior is guided in part by the
BACB Professional and Ethical Compliance Code (Behavior
Analyst Certification Board, 2014). The BACB ethical code,
like other ethical codes (e.g., American Psychological
Association), allows for interpretation and professional judg-
ment. As a supervisor, it is important not to engage in egre-
gious behavior including sexual relationships with a trainee
(or a client/family member), accept gifts, fabricate data, or
plagiarize. The previously described behaviors are clearer in
292 Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298
the ethical code; however, there are other more subtle profes-
sional and ethical behaviors that face fewer punishers for the
supervisor, but that have the potential to negatively impact the
development of a trainee. Common examples of those behav-
iors include, answering phone calls, emails, and text messages
during supervision (i.e., not providing undivided attention),
being tardy and unprepared for meetings, as well as not mak-
ing time available outside of supervision for emergencies,
staying relevant with the literature, protecting the confidenti-
ality of supervision, and modeling effective professional be-
havior, interpersonal skills and collaboration with clients, con-
stituents and other service providers.
Developing Case Conceptualization, Problem Solving,
and Decision-Making Repertoires
Using effective teaching practices, supervisors should estab-
lish fluency in trainees’ ability to behaviorally conceptualize a
case, as this is a critical component of ABA (Behavior Analyst
Certification Board, 2012b). The ability to effectively concep-
tualize a case is influenced by mastery of behavior analytic
theory and content, experience applying theory in practice,
and the ability/willingness to engage in critical thinking. For
trainees, all of the previously described components are de-
veloping with varying levels across areas. The integration of
these skills requires practice and the process of mastering case
conceptualization is thought to be enhanced by supervision
that includes active and critical conversations by supervisors.
As mentioned earlier, engaging trainees in critical conversa-
tion is a great way for trainees to gain competency in behavior
analysis; likewise, it also allows trainees to carefully consider
aspects of an individual’s behavior including, but not limited
to, motivating operations, discriminative stimuli, conse-
quences, and hypothesized function. As the supervision pro-
cess progresses, the trainee should be more autonomous when
conceptualizing cases and the role of the supervisor should be
to confirm the trainee’s conclusion, while providing feedback
as necessary.
Supervisors should also focus on developing problem solv-
ing and decision-making abilities among trainees (Behavior
Analyst Certification Board, 2012b). The practice of ABA is
rooted in a problem-solving framework. Behavior analysts
deal with a variety of problems and their ability to effectively
manage those problems largely dictates their professional suc-
cess. Nezu, Nezu, and D’Zurilla (2013) defined problem solv-
ing as B…a self-directed process by which individuals attempt
to identify, discover, and/or develop adaptive coping solutions
for problems^ (p. 8). Problem solving involves identification
of a problem, the formation of potential alternatives to solve
the problem, a decision to choose one solution over others,
and evaluation of the chosen solution. In supervision, the su-
pervisor is responsible for fostering problem-solving skills in
the trainee.
Like any behavior, problem solving can be taught using
BST. The supervisor should discuss and model each of the
steps of problem solving with the trainee (as needed), and
particular focus should be on the decision-making step. In
our experience, this step is often difficult for trainees to make
because they are concerned that they will make the Bwrong^
choice and subsequently Bmess something up.^ Although
making a contraindicated choice is a concern, the supervisor’s
duty is to ensure that the trainee’s choice does not cause harm.
Ultimately, the supervisor should shape independent problem
solving as competency in problem solving and decision-
making is a critical component to the independent practice
of a behavior analyst.
Considerations in the Delivery of Performance Feedback
It is widely acknowledged that performance feedback is key to
the development, maintenance, and enhancement of all skills
(e.g., Daniels & Bailey, 2014; Mortenson & Witt, 1998). The
effectiveness of frequent, genuine, positive, corrective, and
specific feedback based on direct observations of behavior is
commonly accepted. As such, the delivery of timely and ef-
fective feedback (i.e., feedback that improves behavior) is
required of all behavior analytic supervisors (Behavior
Analyst Certification Board, 2012b; Guideline 5.06;
Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2014). Feedback can
be given in a variety of modalities (e.g., verbal, written, graph-
ic, informal) and has been shown to be most effective when
combined with review of data, goal setting, and modifications
to antecedents and consequences (Alvero, Bucklin, & Austin,
2001; Balacazar, Hopkins, & Suarez, 1985; DiGennaro,
Martens, & Kleinmann, 2007; Sanetti, Luiselli, & Handler,
2007). Due to the importance of feedback to the supervision
process, there are several variables to be considered, including
but not limited to the individualization of feedback, ratio of
positive to corrective feedback, use of rationales, delivery of
corrective feedback regarding interpersonal or subjective be-
havior, documentation of feedback, and a trainee’s current
skill level.
The BACB Supervision Experience Form includes a sam-
ple written evaluation of trainee performance across broad
domains such as timeliness, professionalism, and acquisition
of target behavior analytic skills. However, the form may be
modified to better fit the individual needs of the trainee (but
see the BACB Experience Standards [Behavior Analyst
Certification Board, 2015] for the required components of this
form). For example, items can be added (e.g., trainee-specific
goals) and removed (e.g., items that are consistently rated as
satisfactory) or the rating scale can be adjusted to better depict
the breadth of trainee performance in any one area (e.g., 5-
point rating scale). Individualizing the form collaboratively
with the trainee at the outset of, and throughout, the supervi-
sion process may increase the relevancy of the feedback for
293Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298
the trainee, demonstrate the supervisor’s commitment to su-
pervision, and allow the supervisor to focus feedback on the
trainee’s current goals.
Feedback provided with a high positive to negative ratio is
recommended within the performance management literature
(e.g., Daniels & Bailey, 2014). Maintaining a supervisor’s
value as a positive reinforcer may be enhanced by such a
practice. We also suggest that positive feedback may be en-
hanced by a rationale (i.e., a core component of both BST and
corrective feedback, Behavior Analyst Certification Board,
2012b) that intimately links trainees’ behavior to their short-
and/or long-term goals. For example, BVery impressive per-
formance today with Johnny. Even though it was a stressful
situation, you quickly jumped in to help the other staff imple-
ment the reactive procedures of his behavior plan. The great
thing was that all the other staff saw you keep your cool and
implement the intervention as written, which is important as
you’re trying to establish yourself as a role model in the class-
room. The more you can get in there and model, just like you
did today, the more others will start to look to you as a leader.^
Equally as necessary as positive feedback is the delivery of
corrective feedback, which requires empathy, detailed review
of incorrect and correct performance, modeling, and practice
(Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2012b). When giving
corrective feedback, it is often recommended to remain objec-
tive (e.g., do not correct when in a bad mood; Daniels &
Bailey, 2014), do so privately, and keep in mind the trainee’s
context prior to giving feedback (i.e., empathy). As a point of
emphasis, supervisors are encouraged to be mindful of
Bfavorites^ (i.e., potential side effect of mutual conditioned
reinforcers) due to personal characteristics as these biases
have the potential to overshadow difficulties of or mistakes
made by the trainee.
While provision of corrective feedback for common behav-
ior analytic activities such as graphing or implementing a
preference assessment is relatively straightforward, delivering
corrective feedback for personal or more subjective perfor-
mance areas that are negatively impacting a trainee’s work
can be significantly more challenging. These areas could be
a trainee’s poor social interaction abilities, insensitivity to
others, and inflexibility. Self-report data collected from re-
searchers in related fields suggests that supervisors often with-
hold corrective feedback regarding negative reactions to sub-
jective aspects of a trainee’s performance or give higher rat-
ings in fear of harming the supervisory relationship (Hoffman,
Hill, Holmes, & Freitas, 2005; Gonsalvez & Freestone, 2007).
As supervisors, we are the gatekeepers of our field; failing
to raise important feedback can have negative implications for
clients and the advancement of the profession. When supervi-
sors are faced with having to provide relatively more subjec-
tive or difficult feedback, they are encouraged to seek peer
consultation and discuss potential approaches and practice
delivering corrective feedback prior to meeting with the
trainee. We recommend objectively documenting all relevant
variables to the delivery of corrective feedback including
dates/times, details of events, feedback-specific areas of diffi-
culty, and objective responses and reactions from the trainee.
Lastly, tailoring the parameters in which supervisors pro-
vide feedback should be considered as trainees progress
through different skill areas. Novice trainees, or more ad-
vanced trainees learning a new skill, often require a higher
rate of performance feedback. As trainees begin to develop
skills in each area, the ultimate goal is to have them accurately
and reliably evaluate their own ability to demonstrate each
skill. Asking trainees questions such as, BWhat did you do
correctly?^ or BWhat would you do differently next time^
may help them reflect and think critically about their perfor-
mance. One method for aiding this process is to have trainees
view audio-visual recordings of themselves performing activ-
ities such as leading a parent or staff training and
implementing conditions of a functional analysis. Following
observation of videos, the supervisor and trainee are able to
discuss performance objectively. Another method that may
promote this process is to have trainees evaluate their written
work (e.g., FBA or BIP) relative to a rubric and compare their
results to those of the supervisor.
Evaluation of the Process and Outcomes of Supervision
Behavior analytic supervisors should systematically evaluate
the outcomes of their own supervision practices (Guideline
5.07, Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2014, 2012b)
using both objective and subjective measures. Direct and re-
peated measurement of trainees’ behavior is required to ob-
jec t ively evaluate the outcomes of supervis ion.
Commensurate with the dimensions of ABA (Baer, Wolf, &
Risley, 1968), the supervisor should define the skills to be
acquired, collect data before, during and after skills training,
and use these data to provide feedback to the trainee. For
example, using a procedural fidelity form, supervisors can
monitor and graph trainees’ performance implementing skill
acquisition programs, behavior reduction plans, and behavior-
al skills training. Direct measures of clearly defined, profes-
sional behaviors (e.g., timeliness) can also assist in delivering
feedback and evaluating outcomes. Additionally, behavior an-
alysts are encouraged to publish the results in peer-reviewed
journals to demonstrate the effectiveness of behavioral ap-
proaches within the context of supervision and the relevant
skills.
The review of permanent products also serves to objective-
ly evaluate a trainee’s performance. Permanent products are
the tangible results of behavior and are commonly used as a
data recording method. They can be collected on academic
tasks (e.g., completion of mathematics problems), problem
behavior (e.g., count of holes in a wall), and social skills
(count of phone numbers obtained) to name a few. In the case
294 Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298
of supervision, materials developed by the trainee are the most
obvious permanent products. Those materials include, for ex-
ample, written behavior intervention plans, data sheets, skill-
acquisition plans, assessment reports, graphs, and relevant
goals and objectives in a student’s IEP. Moreover, there are
other permanent products that should be reviewed such as
notes/letters to parents and email correspondence with
teachers/staff. When utilizing a rubric and clear criteria, all
of these documents allow a supervisor to objectively evaluate
a trainee’s growing competency regarding the quality of writ-
ten materials that are critical for constituents that behavior
analysts serve.
Complimentary to objective measures, social validity mea-
sures (Wolf, 1978) can be used to evaluate socially significant
changes in the behavior of a trainee’s clients and satisfaction
with the performance of the trainee by parents and other pro-
fessionals. Social validity measures can also be used to assess
the trainee’s satisfaction with the goals, procedures, and out-
comes of the supervision process. Besides the weekly (or bi-
weekly) trainee rating forms we described earlier, supervisors
are encouraged to obtain this type of feedback from their
trainees. Although not mandated by the BACB, and while
such measures may not be appropriate means to evaluate the
effectiveness of the supervision process with regard to skill
development and client and staff performance outcomes, they
can establish more acceptable and mutually agreed-upon su-
pervision practices and serve as a tool for monitoring the
supervisor-trainee relationship. The objective is having the
trainee identify the methods that are most acceptable, and
allow supervisors to modify their approach during the
trainee’s experience (if needed) and enhance the supervision
process overall. The supervisor may disagree with the feed-
back provided by the trainee; however, this activity opens a
dialogue about what is and is not working and ideally, ensures
that the supervisor and trainee speak openly to each other.
Then, a plan can be created to alter the behavior of the trainee
and/or the supervisor. To reiterate, the foundation for this type
of feedback is grounded in the performance feedback litera-
ture and has clear applications for BCBA supervision.
To assist with this type of evaluation, we developed a
Supervision Monitoring and Evaluation Form as a project
during training at a doctoral internship program in clinical
psychology. The internship site had a strong behavioral orien-
tation and employed/trained behavior analysts. Duringmonth-
ly meetings with the Director of Training, the internship class
discussed strengths and weaknesses of supervisors,
commented about their previous experiences in supervision,
and read literature on competency-based supervision from
multiple fields. After aggregating all of the information, the
group developed the Supervision Monitoring and Evaluation
Form (see appendix).
After developing the form, the clinical interns piloted im-
plementation with their supervisors several times throughout
the year. This implementation not only gave the trainees (i.e.,
behavioral psychology interns) the opportunity to Btest-drive^
the measure, but also allowed them to provide feedback to
their supervisors. Supervisors, in fact, were uniformly positive
about the process of evaluation and readily embraced the feed-
back from their trainees.We suspect that this positive outcome
was due, in part, to having supervisors participate in develop-
ing the Supervision Monitoring and Evaluation Form at the
earliest stages and being receptive to having interns objective-
ly evaluate supervision practices. Again, it is the reciprocity
between trainees and supervisors that is hypothesized to en-
gender success and mutual satisfaction.
Continuing Education in Supervision
The above sections highlight the many responsibilities and
considerations that are present to behavior analytic supervi-
sors and the degree to which supervision of those pursuing a
BACB certification can be complex, time consuming, and
often requires skills beyond the research and practice skills
taught in the formal education of behavior analysts. In recog-
nition of this fact and in addition to maintaining competency
in behavior analysis, the BACB now requires behavior ana-
lysts to receive ongoing education in supervision (Behavior
Analyst Certification Board, 2015), such as effective supervi-
sion practices, ethical considerations regarding supervision,
and the standards of BACB supervision.
While supervisors can obtain formal continuing education
pertaining to supervision through conference presentations,
workshops, and online seminars, supervisors should also seek
out their own supervision (Behavior Analyst Certification
Board, 2012b). The current model highlights the importance
of reciprocal feedback and collaboration between the trainee
and supervisor, but it is also important to develop this type of
relationship among supervisors to encourage mentorship and
consultation in an effort to maintain and enhance supervisor
competence. In addition to consultation, to the extent possible,
it is important to have other competent supervisors observe
your supervision activities and provide feedback based on the
objective criteria we outlined previously.
Social validity measures may further be used as a self-
monitoring tool by providing a means for supervisors to con-
tinually evaluate their performance as a supervisor, which
provides an excellent model of continual self-assessment for
trainees. Placing focus on self-assessment will enable super-
visors to be aware of their strengths and weaknesses in super-
vision practices as well as clinical and research activities.
Using this self-assessment approach, competency-based su-
pervision brings accountability to the practice of behavior
analysis and sets the stage for quality supervision. A first next
step is to conduct an evaluation of the impact of self-
monitoring and evaluation on supervisor behavior and the
295Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298
supervisory relationship, and in turn the impact on trainee skill
development.
Concluding Remarks: Initiating a Research Agenda
in Behavior Analytic Supervision
Competency-based models allow for systematic measurement
of both supervisor and trainee behavior throughout the entire
supervision process, which makes these approaches appropri-
ate for applied research. As there is a dearth of research in this
area, the specific direction of and topics that future research
may take are vast; however, there we present a few consider-
ations for research in this area. First, it will be essential to
objectively define and task analyze core competencies of
trainees and supervisors, especially those falling within the
realm of professional and ethical behaviors (e.g., specific
skills denoting professionalism, display of empathic behav-
ior), so that we can make objective conclusions about an in-
dividual’s competency. It will also be necessary to identify the
validity and value of various outcome measures such as social
validity, BACB exam pass rate, trainee observable behavior in
contrived and naturalistic settings, and client behavior change.
Within this framework, future research should focus on the
identification of effective methods for training generalizable
and maintainable skills to trainees. While the training of basic
procedural skills (e.g., implementing functional analysis con-
ditions) may be a first step, methods for training the complex
skills required of behavior analysts are needed (e.g.,
interviewing skills, problem solving, responding to ethical
dilemmas). For example, what are the considerations for
implementing BST for these skills? How many exemplars
are needed to obtain competency and generalization? What
are effective methods of prompting (e.g., video modeling)
and teaching for generalization?
Further, there is a tentative hypothesis that the quality of the
supervisory relationship as defined by the presence of rapport
and mutually agreed upon expectations will impact the super-
vision experience, notwithstanding the need for more thor-
ough empirical validation. For example, does the supervisory
relationship actually lead to quicker acquisition of skills and/
or a higher number of skill competencies obtained by the
trainee? In order to answer these and many other questions,
we must first objectively define the supervisory relationship.
While we presented an initial definition of the relationship
within this paper, objective indicators of such a relationship
must be described, measured, and incorporated into supervi-
sion practices. Thus, attempts to measure Bgood^ rapport have
focused on the presence of smiling and laughing and the ab-
sence of problem behavior (Magito et al., 2005) but other
measures appear relevant. Trust, for example, can be observed
as someone consistently following through on verbal state-
ments. BLikeability,^ another researched construct, translates
to a person who has a positive attitude, appears happy, speaks
in a pleasant tone, and helps others achieve their goals
(Sanders, 2006). Given the focus of the supervisory relation-
ship in all other models of supervision across disciplines, it
would be advantageous for behavior analysts to systematically
evaluate the impact of the relationship on trainee outcomes
and disseminate to the larger supervision community. Taken
together, comprehensive considerations of the supervisory
guidelines, ethical code and establishing a research agenda
in behavior analytic supervision will ideally lead to an effec-
tive, ethical, and professional group of rapidly growing prac-
ticing behavior analysts.
Compliance with Ethical Standards This article does not contain any
studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the au-
thors.
Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
Funding Funding was not obtained for the creation of this manuscript.
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Abstract
Practice Model for Behavior Analytic Supervision
Set the Occasion for Collaborative and Ethical Supervision
Baseline Assessment of Trainee Skills
Methods to Teach and Promote Skills
Developing Case Conceptualization, Problem Solving, and Decision-Making Repertoires
Considerations in the Delivery of Performance Feedback
Evaluation of the Process and Outcomes of Supervision
Continuing Education in Supervision
Concluding Remarks: Initiating a Research Agenda in Behavior Analytic Supervision
References
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