Module 4 Reflection Paper - Achiever Papers

Describe either your best training experience, OR your worst training experience.

For your best training experience, what elements of BST were included? What did they do that made you enjoy the training?

For your worst training experience, what elements of BST were missing? What did they do that made you dislike the training?

In either case, to your knowledge, did they collect any measures to evaluate the quality of training? If so, what did they evaluate?

Remember to review the Reflection Paper rubric and instructions for reviewing a peer’s submission in the Important Course Information module.

Additionally, please include LINKS or DOIs to any articles or books referenced outside of the assigned readings as part of your APA citation (

as is required when using web-based referencesLinks to an external site.

). Failing to do so will result in point deductions.

I need the work for saturday

SPECIAL SECTION: SUPERVISION PRACTICES

Towards a Competency-Based, Ethical, and Socially Valid
Approach to the Supervision of Applied Behavior
Analytic Trainees

Laura B. Turner1 & Aaron J. Fischer2 & James K. Luiselli3

# Association for Behavior Analysis International 2016

Abstract Competency-based supervision of trainees has re-
cently come to the forefront of behavior analytic practice;
however, there are minimal data to support the effectiveness
of various supervision practices on trainee outcomes.
Accordingly, this paper is intended to spark further discussion
and research activity regarding the supervision of those seek-
ing to become Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBA).
We present a practice model and considerations for supervis-
ing applied behavior analytic trainees consistent with the
Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) Supervisor
Training Curriculum Outline (Behavior Analyst Certification
Board, 2012b), the Professional and Ethical Compliance Code
for Behavior Analysts (Behavior Analyst Certification Board,
2014), and extant literature from behavior analysis and related
fields. Inherent to the current model is a focus on bi-
directional feedback and collaboration between the supervisor
and trainee to frequently evaluate the acceptability of the pro-
cedures, process, outcomes, and effectiveness of supervision.
We present a Supervision Monitoring and Evaluation Form
consistent with the current model and discuss the assumed

importance of objective and subjective self-assessment of su-
pervisor competence to the ultimate advancement of the prac-
tice of applied behavior analysis.

Keywords Applied behavior analysis . Competency-based
supervision . Social validity . Supervision evaluation form .

Trainee

Supervision is a crucial activity of most Board Certified
Behavior Analysts (BCBA) and is especially important given
the growing number of applied behavior analytic trainees and
the expanding demand for applied behavior analysis (ABA)
services worldwide. It is generally assumed that quality super-
vision will contribute to the development of effective and
ethical practitioners, protection of clients, and advances in
the field. Initial research also suggests that the intensity of
supervision provided by applied behavior analysts is positive-
ly related to clinically significant improvements in client per-
formance (Eikeseth, Hayward, Gale, Gitlesen, & Eldevek,
2009). However, until recently, there were minimal standards
on how to provide a valuable supervision experience for
trainees. In 2011, the Behavior Analyst Certification Board
(BACB) initiated a Supervision Task Force to develop defin-
itive supervision guidelines and training standards for the field
(Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2011). Resulting from
this task force were minimal competencies required of those
providing supervision to individuals pursuing a BACB certi-
fication or practicing as Board Certified Assistant Behavior
Analysts (BCaBA) or Registered Behavior Technicians (RBT;
Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2012b). Relevant is-
sues were designing a supervision contract, implementing be-
havioral skills training (BST), and delivering frequent perfor-
mance feedback.

Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article
(doi:10.1007/s40617-016-0121-4) contains supplementary material,
which is available to authorized users.

* Laura B. Turner
lbturner@usj.edu

1 University of Saint Joseph, 1678 Asylum Avenue, West
Hartford, CT 06117, USA

2 University of Utah, 1721 Campus Center Drive, Salt Lake
City, UT 84112, USA

3 Clinical Solutions, Inc. and North East Educational and
Developmental Support Center, 1120 Main Street,
Tewksbury, MA 01940, USA

DOI 10.1007/s40617-016-0121-4

Published online: 28March 2016

Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40617-016-0121-4

http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s40617-016-0121-4&domain=pdf

Underlying this competency-based approach is the as-
sumption that, rather than Bosmosis^ (Falender &
Shafranske, 2012, p. 133), supervision is an independent area
of practice and requires acquisition, refinement, and mainte-
nance of skills; although strong clinical and research skills are
essential to being a competent supervisor, these skills alone do
not automatically equate to strong supervisory skills.
Attention is now being given to the development of supervisor
competencies and identification of effective components of
supervision, a process mirrored by several other helping pro-
fessions, such as social work (Kraemer-Tebes et al., 2011),
psychology (American Psychological Association, 2015;
Falender et al., 2004), and medicine (Frank et al., 2010).

The purpose of this paper is to present a practice model
that integrates evidence-based training and supervision
practices with the complex ethical and practical consider-
ations regarding supervision. Because there are currently
limited data on the effectiveness of supervision and specif-
ic supervision practices in developing well-trained
BCBAs, BCaBAs, and RBTs, the current model is guided
by the supervisory experiences of the authors, extant liter-
ature from behavior analysis and related fields, the BACB
Supervision Training Curriculum Outline (Behavior
Analyst Certification Board, 2012b), and the newly devel-
oped Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for
Behavior Analysts (Behavior Analyst Certification Board,
2014), which now more comprehensively reflects the pro-
fessional responsibilities of supervisors. Some of these rec-
ommendations may be time-consuming and go beyond the
requirements of the BACB; however, these points of con-
sideration on the application of existing supervisory and
ethical guidelines may enhance supervisory practice.
Note that we have adopted the term Btrainee^ throughout
to refer to BCBA and BCaBA candidates, as well as prac-
ticing BCaBAs and RBTs as they require ongoing super-
vision and cannot practice independently.

Within this framework, we review the many competen-
cies required of supervisors including fluency with the eth-
ical guidelines regarding supervision, effective training
techniques across basic and complex skill areas (e.g., clin-
ical decision-making and professionalism), and perfor-
mance feedback methods to support acquisition and main-
tenance of skills. Our premise is that the implementation of
an evidence-based approach within a positive, collabora-
tive, and individualized environment fosters a well-
rounded and effective trainee. We also provide examples
and considerations for how to incorporate these competen-
cy areas into a practice repertoire in which supervisor be-
havior, in addition to trainee behavior, is frequently evalu-
ated and modified based on trainee feedback and progress.
Focus is placed on the use of social validity measures to aid
in the ongoing adjustment of supervisory behavior and the
ongoing self-assessment of the supervisor.

Practice Model for Behavior Analytic Supervision

Set the Occasion for Collaborative and Ethical
Supervision

A strong and collaborative supervisory relationship is widely
acknowledged as contributing to the quality and effectiveness
of clinical supervision across several other disciplines (e.g.,
Bernard & Goodyear, 2014; Bordin, 1983; Falender et al.,
2004). Although notoriously complex and difficult to objec-
tively define and measure, the supervisory relationship is typ-
ically defined in two parts. In behavior analytic terms, the first
part can be described as the degree to which a supervisor and a
trainee are mutual discriminative stimuli for generalized rein-
forcement (i.e., Brapport^ as discussed by Carr and colleagues,
1997, p. 111). Carr and colleagues (1997; Magito,
McLaughlin, & Carr, 2005) further discuss rapport as a setting
event and demonstrate that the development of rapport is a key
aspect to approaching skill development. Although their dis-
cussion is specific to individuals with developmental disabil-
ities, the basic behavioral principles behind their observations
have clear implications for the supervisor-trainee relationship.

As an example, the relative rapport between a supervisor
and trainee may impact the trainee’s approach behavior to-
wards the supervisor. If a supervisor does not function as a
cue for reinforcement (or the supervisor functions as a cue for
punishment), it is likely that the trainee will avoid the super-
visor and instead seek out others, including non-behavior an-
alysts, for guidance and feedback. While the specific behav-
iors required to develop rapport within the context of the su-
pervisory relationship have not yet been systematically iden-
tified, a few face valid examples that may assist supervisors in
establishing themselves as reinforcers include being ap-
proachable (e.g., visibility and nonverbal behaviors) and re-
sponsive (e.g., to emails), using more positive statements rel-
ative to negative (e.g., 4:1 ratio; Daniels & Bailey, 2014), and
demonstrating undivided attention towards the trainee during
meetings. Importantly, these behaviors certainly do not ensure
that the supervisor will produce a competent trainee, and other
variables are also likely to impact the degree to which the
trainee approaches the supervisor with relevant issues and
questions (e.g., supervisor competency).

The second component of the supervisory relationship can
be described as the degree to which a supervisor and trainee
generate mutually agreed upon expectations and goals for su-
pervision and engage in behavior consistent with those expec-
tations and goals. The supervision contract, a requirement of
BACB approved supervision (Behavior Analyst Certification
Board, 2015), can be used to guide the development of the
supervisory relationship and the terms of supervision (see
Guideline 5.05; Behavior Analyst Certification Board,
2014). The contract fosters an initial and collaborative discus-
sion between a supervisor and trainee with regard to the nature

288 Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298

of the professional relationship and the expectations and re-
sponsibilities of each member. Supervisors can use this dis-
cussion to model shared expectations and commitment to the
supervision process.

Self-report data from related fields suggests that a poor
supervisory relationship is related to a trainee’s decreased
willingness to disclose relevant clinical information (Mehr,
Ladany, & Caskie, 2015) and follow through with a supervi-
sor’s recommendations (Ladany, Hill, Corbett, & Nutt, 1996),
as well as increased likelihood of burnout (Gibson, Grey, &
Hastings, 2009). However, to what extent the quality of the
supervisory relationship influences the outcomes of supervi-
sion is unknown and should be a focus of future research (see
an extended discussion below). Until then, we hypothesize
that the development of a technically skilled, ethical, and pro-
fessional behavior analyst may potentially suffer without the
presence of a strong supervisory relationship. Thus, an impor-
tant first, and ongoing, step in the supervision process may be
to build a strong supervisory relationship. As part of, or in
addition to the supervision contract, we suggest supervisors
participate in the following discussions with trainees to further
establish mutual expectations for the supervision experience
and ensure consideration of relevant ethical guidelines in an
effort to avoid potential harm to trainees and the professional
supervisory relationship.

Define the Relationship The first step in any professional
relationship is to define basic and fundamental expectations
between participating individuals. While there are clear exam-
ples of inappropriate supervisory relationships that often do
not necessitate a lengthy initial discussion (e.g., sexual
relationships; see Guideline 1.07; Behavior Analyst
Certification Board, 2014), subtle aspects of the supervisory
relationship may be unclear to the trainee and should be clar-
ified. The supervisory relationship can be confusing as the
supervisor may serve as a teacher, mentor, evaluator, and fa-
cilitator of self-assessment and growth, all of which are over-
lapping roles and imply a slightly different style of profession-
al interaction and power differential. For example, a supervi-
sor is commonly defined as someone who oversees certain
activities and holds evaluative power over the trainee, while
a mentor is often described as a trusted advisor and confidant.
Further, the everyday practice of behavior analysis can be
stressful, often physically and mentally exhausting, making
initial discussion of a supportive relationship beneficial.

While all these roles are supervisory in nature and holding
these roles concurrently with a trainee does not necessarily
constitute a multiple relationship as defined by the BACB
(Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2014), supervisors
may find themselves differentially allocating their time across
several of these roles depending on the current context of
supervision and the trainee’s experiences. It may be beneficial
to discuss these potentially changing roles at the outset of

supervision and to engage in self-assessment and monitoring,
as well as peer consultation, to ensure the role fits the current
needs of the trainee while still within the parameters of a
professional relationship.

Further, trainees will already have negative and/or positive
experiences working with people in these various roles and
may have preconceived expectations about the nature of the
current supervisory relationship. For example, trainees with
past supervisors who did not encourage collaboration may
be reticent to present contrasting ideas or raise concerns with
their new supervisors. It may be fruitful for supervisors to ask
trainees about their definition of supervision and their previ-
ous experiences being supervised (whether or not in behavior
analysis) and to discuss how their definition and experiences
align with those of the supervisor and the most recent version
of the BACB Experience Standards (i.e., Behavior Analyst
Certification Board, 2015). Also important is the verbal rec-
ognition of and sensitivity to the fact that the supervisory
relationship can be impacted by beliefs, values, and interper-
sonal biases shaped by previous experiences. Discussing such
issues may reduce the likelihood of dissimilar views and ex-
pectations regarding the supervision process.

Paying for supervision further complicates the role of the
supervisor and trainee. Many individuals seeking a BACB
credential do not have access to local or Bin-house^ BCBAs
who are approved to provide supervision. This challenge re-
quires those seeking supervision to identify approved BCBA
supervisors in their community or even across great distances
(through videoconferencing). When seeking supervision
through this format, supervisors typically charge an hourly
rate, which is determined by the supervisor and payment for
supervision services must be discussed with the trainee at the
onset of the supervisory relationship. Since trainees pay for
services in this arrangement, the supervisor and trainee must
consider any potential negative impact payment may have on
the professional supervisory relationship.

Performance Expectations It is important to clearly define,
outline, and agree upon the performance expectations and
responsibilities of both the trainee and supervisor. Dual re-
sponsibilities foster a give-and-take relationship and allow
for shared accountability. To ensure a clear understanding of
the expectations of the trainee and supervisor according to the
BACB, we recommend reviewing the BACB Experience
Standards (Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2015) at
the outset of supervision, even if the trainee has already ac-
crued supervision hours with another supervisor. It is also
important to identify any idiosyncratic expectations of the
trainee and/or supervisor that, if not discussed, may place
stress on the supervisory relationship. Such expectations
may be that both parties must contact each other at least
24 h in advance to reschedule or that both parties will respond
to email correspondence within 48 h.

289Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298

The degree to which either a trainee or supervisor can con-
sistently complete the agreed-upon responsibilities is often
impacted by an individual’s time and competing commit-
ments. Conducting an analysis of time for both parties is one
method for outlining reasonable responsibilities. With regard
to the supervisor’s time, consider a supervisor supervising one
trainee who is accruing 30 h/week of Supervised Independent
Fieldwork. Per the Experience Standards (Behavior Analyst
Certification Board, 2015), this equates to 3 h of supervision
for every 2-week supervisory period (i.e., 5 % of total accrued
hours); however, 3 h of supervision almost always requires
more than 3 h of time. Often overlooked in the initial calcula-
tion of time is (a) travel time to and from the trainee’s work-
place for direct observations (i.e., if different from the super-
visor’s workplace and if audio-video recording or videocon-
ferencing is not viable), (b) travel time to and from supervision
meetings (i.e., if videoconferencing is not an option), (c) time
to search for appropriate articles and resources for the trainee,
and (d) time to read (or re-read) those articles. Additional time
is required in responding to trainee emails, reviewing trainee
permanent products, giving detailed feedback during the su-
pervision meeting, completing performance evaluations,
documenting various aspects of the supervision process
(e.g., remediation), and seeking peer feedback, and/or consul-
tation with regard to the supervisory behaviors of the supervi-
sor. Taken together, these activities can quickly increase those
3 h every 2 weeks to 6 h or more every 2 weeks! We encour-
age supervisors and trainees to complete this activity together
to establish appropriate workloads and expectations for both
parties (see Guideline 5.02; Behavior Analyst Certification
Board, 2014).

Evaluation of Performance Expectations One of the main
responsibilities of supervisors is to consistently evaluate and
document trainee performance. This matter is often an area of
trainee distress and an area without strict guidelines, so it is
crucial to gain initial agreement about the behaviors to be
evaluated (e.g., technical, professional, and ethical), the eval-
uation process, and the consequences of poor performance
evaluations. Agreeing on the terms of a poor evaluation of
the trainee beforehand may make execution of the set conse-
quences more straightforward and perhaps have fewer nega-
tive side effects. Include in the guidelines clear, objective and
measureable circumstances for all consequences. For exam-
ple, at what point will a remedial plan be developed (e.g., after
3 consistent supervisory periods of unsatisfactory perfor-
mance), what will the remedial plan consist of (e.g., an addi-
tional individual meeting with the supervisor, extra readings),
and what is the consequence of performing poorly during, or
not completing, the remediation (e.g., supervisor terminating
the relationship)? Lastly, if the relationship is ultimately ter-
minated, it will be important to pre-determine what, if any,
hours the supervisor will approve.

Supervisors are highly encouraged to seek feedback from
trainees concerning their performance as a supervisor and
their ability to follow through with the agreed upon expecta-
tions. We recommend communicating the value of this ap-
proach to the trainee at the outset of supervision to further
create a sense of shared accountability with respect to
obtaining the goals of the supervisory relationship.
Obtaining candid information from trainees can be difficult
(Mehr, Ladany, & Caskie, 2010), and supervisors must con-
sider the inherent power differential; however, a strong super-
visory relationship between the supervisor and trainee and an
expectation of the reciprocal nature of feedback is hypothe-
sized to counteract this limitation.

Confidentiality The BACB Professional and Ethical
Compliance Code (Behavior Analyst Certification Board,
2014) states that behavior analysts have a primary obligation
to protect the confidentiality of the individuals they supervise
(Guideline 2.06). Confidential information in a supervisory
relationship predominantly includes performance evaluations,
such as written reviews or ratings on evaluation forms. It may
be beneficial to initially communicate to trainees that this in-
formation will be kept out of public sight and only discussed
with others that have a clear, professional reason for being
concerned with such matters, such as a trainee’s on-sight su-
pervisor. It may also be beneficial to let trainees know that
individual corrective feedback will be given in private and not
during group supervision sessions.

Given the sometimes close, professional relationships that
can develop through supervision, the trainee may disclose
personal information germane to his or her behavior analytic
work. As an example, a trainee may acknowledge an interper-
sonal conflict with a professional colleague. Direct conversa-
tion about the confidentiality of such disclosures may increase
the likelihood that a trainee approaches their supervisor con-
fidently and without fear of disclosure so that the issue may be
discussed and an appropriate solution determined.

Remote Supervision With the advent of contemporary vid-
eoconferencing technology, behavior analytic supervision can
occur remotely by interacting through live two-way audio-
video communication across the Internet or cellular networks.
Supervision through videoconferencing allows supervisors to
engage in supervision sessions with trainees without having to
be in the same physical location, which results in reduced
travel time, increased savings associated with travel costs,
and the potential to provide supervision for individuals in rural
or hard to reach areas who may not have access to locally
qualified behavior analysts.

Despite these benefits, supervision conducted through vid-
eoconferencing also poses many potential challenges. These
challenges include breaches of client confidentiality, technical
difficulties, and lack of physical presence of a supervisor

290 Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298

during high-risk situations (Florell, 2016). Supervision con-
ducted via videoconferencing must ensure client confidential-
ity by facilitating sessions through HIPAA and FERPA com-
pliant videoconferencing software (e.g., Adobe Connect,
Vidyo, VSee); however, due to perpetual changes to video-
conferencing software, supervisors should thoroughly scruti-
nize potential software before using it during remote supervi-
sion. Readers are also encouraged to review Cavalari, Gillis,
Kruser, and Romanczyk (2015) for an extended discussion
regarding digital sharing and storage of audio-visual
recordings.

Regarding technical difficulties, supervisors and trainees
should be familiar with the videoconferencing software that
is used, ensure that they have the required hardware for high-
quality videoconferencing (e.g., 720p or higher resolution
webcam, high bandwidth Internet connection, computer/lap-
top/tablet with fast processing speed), and become familiar
with the evidence-based practice guidelines for telemental
health services (cf. Grady et al., 2011). To guarantee support
for trainees during high-risk situations, the supervisor should
develop a plan with the trainee so that an on-site supervisor is
available or the supervisor can be reached by phone (Abbass
et al., 2011; Panos, Panos, Cox, Roby, & Matheson, 2002).

Termination of the Relationship Just as expected with cli-
ents, the parameters of planned or unplanned termination of
the supervisory relationship should be discussed at the outset
of supervision (Guideline 2.15; Behavior Analyst
Certification Board, 2014). The BACB encourages trainees
to accrue experience hours with different supervisors.
Accordingly, an initial conversation about the number of su-
pervisors trainees have already worked with and the number
of experience hours trainees have accrued is warranted to de-
termine a mutually agreed upon duration for the current su-
pervisory relationship. Additionally, if the trainee is transfer-
ring to another supervisor, we encourage the previous super-
visor to speak with the new supervisor about the strengths and
weaknesses of the trainee and current goals. This dialogue
should be initiated with approval from the trainee. In the event
of an unplanned termination such as the supervisor changing
employers, development of a contingency plan will ensure the
trainee continues to receive supervision.

Baseline Assessment of Trainee Skills

Although there are no standard procedures to initially assess
trainee skills, we can incorporate strategies from the field of
behavior analysis to guide our evaluation. We suggest the fol-
lowing methods as strategies to evaluate trainee baseline per-
formance across various skills: behavioral observation, infor-
mal assessment, review of course syllabi, discussion with pre-
vious supervisors, and review of the BACB Fourth Edition
Task List (Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2012a).

Using these indirect and direct methods, the supervisor and
trainee are able to collaboratively develop goals that are objec-
tive, measureable, and obtainable (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007; Daniels & Bailey, 2014). We will discuss each of these
strategies and their contribution to assessing trainee skills.

Behavioral observation, the basis of all behavior analytic
work, requires a behavior analyst to operationally define be-
haviors of interest and subsequently record the occurrence of
those behaviors. In the context of supervision, a supervisor
should observe and record specific trainee behavior such as
the extent to which an intervention or behavioral support plan
is implemented with integrity (Gresham, Gansle, & Noell,
1993), verbal behavior of a trainee as they interact with staff,
colleagues, clients, or parents, and reliability of trainee behav-
ioral observation through assessment of inter-observer agree-
ment (Cooper et al., 2007).

Informal (formative) assessment, although not behavioral,
is useful to gather information from a trainee. This type of
assessment is frequently used in education (Dunn &
Mulvenon, 2009) and is achieved through conversations with
trainees about their previous experiences, completion of
checklists, and review of writing samples or portfolios. Such
assessment should combine records review, semi-structured
interview, and discussion about the areas of practice as a be-
havior analyst. The informal assessment should be used to
gather information about past experience but also specific
areas of strength and weakness. Additionally, as an ongoing
skills assessment, supervisors should ask questions of the
trainees to evaluate their knowledge of behavioral procedures
(e.g., BWhat were the four test conditions of the Iwata, Dorsey,
Slifer, Bauman, and Richman (1994) functional analysis
[FA]?^). Depending on trainees’ understanding of the FA lit-
erature and their prior implementation history, supervisors
should ask follow-up questions (e.g., BWhat are pros and cons
regarding the manymodifications to the original—Iwata et al.,
1994—FA?^). These types of questions allow supervisors to
gauge trainees’ skills and trainees’ responses provide a base-
line assessment of their ability to think critically and discuss
behavior analytic theory broadly or more acutely.

Review of course syllabi with the trainee is quite useful
when assessing skills. In a collaborative format within super-
vision sessions, the supervisor and trainee may benefit from
discussing the topics covered in the trainee’s BACB-approved
coursework. Independent of the supervision session, the super-
visor is encouraged to review the syllabi to ensure that relevant
readings have been assigned—this action provides the oppor-
tunity to introduce readings to the trainee that might not have
been assigned. The benefit of assigning readings within the
supervision context is, as a supervisor, you can work individ-
ually with your trainee and critically analyze and discuss the
behavior analytic literature. Subsequently, reviewing articles is
assumed to teach critical thinking that is essential for applied
work and preparation for the upcoming BACB exam.

291Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298

Discussion with previous supervisors is a valuable way to
assess a trainee’s skill set; however, the availability and ease of
these options is variable depending on the practicum site. For
example, if trainees receive their experience hours at a large
human service provider with multiple schools within the or-
ganization, trainees might change schools or classrooms. In
this situation, the supervisors might change as well, leaving
the opportunity for discourse between the prior and current
supervisor.

Finally, it is recommended that the supervisor and
trainee jointly review the BACB Fourth Edition Task List
(Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2012a) and use the
document as a checklist of areas the trainee has already
mastered and those that are still in need of instruction and
practice.

Methods to Teach and Promote Skills

Acknowledging that trainees have varying levels of skills,
supervisors can expect at some point that they will need to
directly and systematically teach new skills. Importantly, the
supervisor must attempt to match teaching techniques and
performance expectations to the trainee’s current perfor-
mance. For example, a novice trainee might not be fluent with
all the different approaches to conducting preference assess-
ments. In this case, the supervisor could indirectly discuss
methods and provide relevant literature for the trainee to read
about the topic and improve his or her knowledge. For the
trainee who is familiar with the literature on preference assess-
ments but has not actually conducted such an assessment with
a client, the supervisor could model correct procedures. Lastly,
for the trainee who has mastered designing and implementing
preference assessments, the supervisor could speak with the
trainee about possible modifications to implementing prefer-
ence assessments and/or ask that the trainee uses behavioral
approaches to teach the skill to another staff member or parent.

In each of the cases described above, the supervisor en-
gages in different behaviors and those behaviors are appropri-
ate to the trainee’s skill set. Taking the time to comprehensive-
ly evaluate the current skill level of a trainee and set appropri-
ate behavioral goals and expectations may allow for a more
positive and successful supervisory experience for the trainee.
As well, this strategy allows supervisors to provide ample
amounts of positive feedback to trainees. If supervisors are
unaware of trainees’ current skill set, supervisors might pro-
vide a type and/or level of supervision that is inappropriate,
and run the risk of confusing or overwhelming trainees, which
in turn may potentially harm a client (see Guideline 5.03;
Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2014).

Within this individualized framework, it is expected that
supervisors use behavioral skills training (BST) to develop
novel skills among trainees (Behavior Analyst Certification
Board, 2012b). BST is ubiquitous in the behavior analytic

literature (Rosales, Stone, & Rehfeldt, 2009) and shown to
be effective for skill acquisition in typically developing chil-
dren (Himle, Miltenberger, Flessner, & Gatheridge, 2004;
Jones, Kazdin, & Haney, 1981; Yeaton & Bailey, 1978), chil-
dren with autism (Gunby & Rapp, 2014), teachers and para-
professionals (Lavie & Sturmey, 2002; Sarokoff & Sturmey,
2004), and parents (Himle & Wright, 2014; Seiverling,
Williams, Sturmey, & Hart, 2012; Shayne & Miltenberger,
2013). In the context of supervision, BST involves providing
a rationale to the trainee about the skills to be acquired, sys-
tematic instruction of skills to the trainee, modeling the previ-
ously taught skills to the trainee, rehearsal of the skills by the
trainee (i.e., either in vivo or role-play), and supervisor posi-
tive and corrective feedback to the trainee about his or her
performance of the skills (Behavior Analyst Certification
Board, 2012b; Parsons, Rollyson, & Reid, 2012). Despite
the effectiveness of BST, to our knowledge, there are no be-
havioral studies that have evaluated BST to teach skills (i.e.,
especially relatively complex skills) to individuals pursuing a
BACB certification.

It is also expected that supervisors model technical, profes-
sional, and ethical behavior (Behavior Analyst Certification
Board, 2012b). The behavior of the supervisor is at the foun-
dation of competency-based supervision. Ideally, a trainee
looks up to the supervisor to learn how to behave in a variety
of situations. As a supervisor, modeling technical behavior is
important for many skills, such as the language we use to
discuss behavior analysis and for the work we conduct with
individuals. A supervisor should demonstrate mastery of the
formal terminology of ABAwhile being competent with col-
loquial speech when conversing with a layperson. Supervisors
should teach their trainees both the formal and informal ways
of discussing terminology, while explaining the limitations of
using jargon with their constituents.

In addition to the technical language, supervisors should
also model technical competency when working with individ-
uals. Throughout the supervision process, the supervisor
might need to Bjump in^ with the trainee and demonstrate
how to implement a certain procedure with fidelity. As such,
the supervisor must stay current on their clinical practice.
Similar to professional athletes, a technically sound supervisor
should be able to model technical skills and Bmake it look
easy.^ Not only should supervisors model technical skills,
they should also model professional and ethical behavior.

Professional and ethical behavior is guided in part by the
BACB Professional and Ethical Compliance Code (Behavior
Analyst Certification Board, 2014). The BACB ethical code,
like other ethical codes (e.g., American Psychological
Association), allows for interpretation and professional judg-
ment. As a supervisor, it is important not to engage in egre-
gious behavior including sexual relationships with a trainee
(or a client/family member), accept gifts, fabricate data, or
plagiarize. The previously described behaviors are clearer in

292 Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298

the ethical code; however, there are other more subtle profes-
sional and ethical behaviors that face fewer punishers for the
supervisor, but that have the potential to negatively impact the
development of a trainee. Common examples of those behav-
iors include, answering phone calls, emails, and text messages
during supervision (i.e., not providing undivided attention),
being tardy and unprepared for meetings, as well as not mak-
ing time available outside of supervision for emergencies,
staying relevant with the literature, protecting the confidenti-
ality of supervision, and modeling effective professional be-
havior, interpersonal skills and collaboration with clients, con-
stituents and other service providers.

Developing Case Conceptualization, Problem Solving,
and Decision-Making Repertoires

Using effective teaching practices, supervisors should estab-
lish fluency in trainees’ ability to behaviorally conceptualize a
case, as this is a critical component of ABA (Behavior Analyst
Certification Board, 2012b). The ability to effectively concep-
tualize a case is influenced by mastery of behavior analytic
theory and content, experience applying theory in practice,
and the ability/willingness to engage in critical thinking. For
trainees, all of the previously described components are de-
veloping with varying levels across areas. The integration of
these skills requires practice and the process of mastering case
conceptualization is thought to be enhanced by supervision
that includes active and critical conversations by supervisors.
As mentioned earlier, engaging trainees in critical conversa-
tion is a great way for trainees to gain competency in behavior
analysis; likewise, it also allows trainees to carefully consider
aspects of an individual’s behavior including, but not limited
to, motivating operations, discriminative stimuli, conse-
quences, and hypothesized function. As the supervision pro-
cess progresses, the trainee should be more autonomous when
conceptualizing cases and the role of the supervisor should be
to confirm the trainee’s conclusion, while providing feedback
as necessary.

Supervisors should also focus on developing problem solv-
ing and decision-making abilities among trainees (Behavior
Analyst Certification Board, 2012b). The practice of ABA is
rooted in a problem-solving framework. Behavior analysts
deal with a variety of problems and their ability to effectively
manage those problems largely dictates their professional suc-
cess. Nezu, Nezu, and D’Zurilla (2013) defined problem solv-
ing as B…a self-directed process by which individuals attempt
to identify, discover, and/or develop adaptive coping solutions
for problems^ (p. 8). Problem solving involves identification
of a problem, the formation of potential alternatives to solve
the problem, a decision to choose one solution over others,
and evaluation of the chosen solution. In supervision, the su-
pervisor is responsible for fostering problem-solving skills in
the trainee.

Like any behavior, problem solving can be taught using
BST. The supervisor should discuss and model each of the
steps of problem solving with the trainee (as needed), and
particular focus should be on the decision-making step. In
our experience, this step is often difficult for trainees to make
because they are concerned that they will make the Bwrong^
choice and subsequently Bmess something up.^ Although
making a contraindicated choice is a concern, the supervisor’s
duty is to ensure that the trainee’s choice does not cause harm.
Ultimately, the supervisor should shape independent problem
solving as competency in problem solving and decision-
making is a critical component to the independent practice
of a behavior analyst.

Considerations in the Delivery of Performance Feedback

It is widely acknowledged that performance feedback is key to
the development, maintenance, and enhancement of all skills
(e.g., Daniels & Bailey, 2014; Mortenson & Witt, 1998). The
effectiveness of frequent, genuine, positive, corrective, and
specific feedback based on direct observations of behavior is
commonly accepted. As such, the delivery of timely and ef-
fective feedback (i.e., feedback that improves behavior) is
required of all behavior analytic supervisors (Behavior
Analyst Certification Board, 2012b; Guideline 5.06;
Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2014). Feedback can
be given in a variety of modalities (e.g., verbal, written, graph-
ic, informal) and has been shown to be most effective when
combined with review of data, goal setting, and modifications
to antecedents and consequences (Alvero, Bucklin, & Austin,
2001; Balacazar, Hopkins, & Suarez, 1985; DiGennaro,
Martens, & Kleinmann, 2007; Sanetti, Luiselli, & Handler,
2007). Due to the importance of feedback to the supervision
process, there are several variables to be considered, including
but not limited to the individualization of feedback, ratio of
positive to corrective feedback, use of rationales, delivery of
corrective feedback regarding interpersonal or subjective be-
havior, documentation of feedback, and a trainee’s current
skill level.

The BACB Supervision Experience Form includes a sam-
ple written evaluation of trainee performance across broad
domains such as timeliness, professionalism, and acquisition
of target behavior analytic skills. However, the form may be
modified to better fit the individual needs of the trainee (but
see the BACB Experience Standards [Behavior Analyst
Certification Board, 2015] for the required components of this
form). For example, items can be added (e.g., trainee-specific
goals) and removed (e.g., items that are consistently rated as
satisfactory) or the rating scale can be adjusted to better depict
the breadth of trainee performance in any one area (e.g., 5-
point rating scale). Individualizing the form collaboratively
with the trainee at the outset of, and throughout, the supervi-
sion process may increase the relevancy of the feedback for

293Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298

the trainee, demonstrate the supervisor’s commitment to su-
pervision, and allow the supervisor to focus feedback on the
trainee’s current goals.

Feedback provided with a high positive to negative ratio is
recommended within the performance management literature
(e.g., Daniels & Bailey, 2014). Maintaining a supervisor’s
value as a positive reinforcer may be enhanced by such a
practice. We also suggest that positive feedback may be en-
hanced by a rationale (i.e., a core component of both BST and
corrective feedback, Behavior Analyst Certification Board,
2012b) that intimately links trainees’ behavior to their short-
and/or long-term goals. For example, BVery impressive per-
formance today with Johnny. Even though it was a stressful
situation, you quickly jumped in to help the other staff imple-
ment the reactive procedures of his behavior plan. The great
thing was that all the other staff saw you keep your cool and
implement the intervention as written, which is important as
you’re trying to establish yourself as a role model in the class-
room. The more you can get in there and model, just like you
did today, the more others will start to look to you as a leader.^

Equally as necessary as positive feedback is the delivery of
corrective feedback, which requires empathy, detailed review
of incorrect and correct performance, modeling, and practice
(Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2012b). When giving
corrective feedback, it is often recommended to remain objec-
tive (e.g., do not correct when in a bad mood; Daniels &
Bailey, 2014), do so privately, and keep in mind the trainee’s
context prior to giving feedback (i.e., empathy). As a point of
emphasis, supervisors are encouraged to be mindful of
Bfavorites^ (i.e., potential side effect of mutual conditioned
reinforcers) due to personal characteristics as these biases
have the potential to overshadow difficulties of or mistakes
made by the trainee.

While provision of corrective feedback for common behav-
ior analytic activities such as graphing or implementing a
preference assessment is relatively straightforward, delivering
corrective feedback for personal or more subjective perfor-
mance areas that are negatively impacting a trainee’s work
can be significantly more challenging. These areas could be
a trainee’s poor social interaction abilities, insensitivity to
others, and inflexibility. Self-report data collected from re-
searchers in related fields suggests that supervisors often with-
hold corrective feedback regarding negative reactions to sub-
jective aspects of a trainee’s performance or give higher rat-
ings in fear of harming the supervisory relationship (Hoffman,
Hill, Holmes, & Freitas, 2005; Gonsalvez & Freestone, 2007).

As supervisors, we are the gatekeepers of our field; failing
to raise important feedback can have negative implications for
clients and the advancement of the profession. When supervi-
sors are faced with having to provide relatively more subjec-
tive or difficult feedback, they are encouraged to seek peer
consultation and discuss potential approaches and practice
delivering corrective feedback prior to meeting with the

trainee. We recommend objectively documenting all relevant
variables to the delivery of corrective feedback including
dates/times, details of events, feedback-specific areas of diffi-
culty, and objective responses and reactions from the trainee.

Lastly, tailoring the parameters in which supervisors pro-
vide feedback should be considered as trainees progress
through different skill areas. Novice trainees, or more ad-
vanced trainees learning a new skill, often require a higher
rate of performance feedback. As trainees begin to develop
skills in each area, the ultimate goal is to have them accurately
and reliably evaluate their own ability to demonstrate each
skill. Asking trainees questions such as, BWhat did you do
correctly?^ or BWhat would you do differently next time^
may help them reflect and think critically about their perfor-
mance. One method for aiding this process is to have trainees
view audio-visual recordings of themselves performing activ-
ities such as leading a parent or staff training and
implementing conditions of a functional analysis. Following
observation of videos, the supervisor and trainee are able to
discuss performance objectively. Another method that may
promote this process is to have trainees evaluate their written
work (e.g., FBA or BIP) relative to a rubric and compare their
results to those of the supervisor.

Evaluation of the Process and Outcomes of Supervision

Behavior analytic supervisors should systematically evaluate
the outcomes of their own supervision practices (Guideline
5.07, Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2014, 2012b)
using both objective and subjective measures. Direct and re-
peated measurement of trainees’ behavior is required to ob-
jec t ively evaluate the outcomes of supervis ion.
Commensurate with the dimensions of ABA (Baer, Wolf, &
Risley, 1968), the supervisor should define the skills to be
acquired, collect data before, during and after skills training,
and use these data to provide feedback to the trainee. For
example, using a procedural fidelity form, supervisors can
monitor and graph trainees’ performance implementing skill
acquisition programs, behavior reduction plans, and behavior-
al skills training. Direct measures of clearly defined, profes-
sional behaviors (e.g., timeliness) can also assist in delivering
feedback and evaluating outcomes. Additionally, behavior an-
alysts are encouraged to publish the results in peer-reviewed
journals to demonstrate the effectiveness of behavioral ap-
proaches within the context of supervision and the relevant
skills.

The review of permanent products also serves to objective-
ly evaluate a trainee’s performance. Permanent products are
the tangible results of behavior and are commonly used as a
data recording method. They can be collected on academic
tasks (e.g., completion of mathematics problems), problem
behavior (e.g., count of holes in a wall), and social skills
(count of phone numbers obtained) to name a few. In the case

294 Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298

of supervision, materials developed by the trainee are the most
obvious permanent products. Those materials include, for ex-
ample, written behavior intervention plans, data sheets, skill-
acquisition plans, assessment reports, graphs, and relevant
goals and objectives in a student’s IEP. Moreover, there are
other permanent products that should be reviewed such as
notes/letters to parents and email correspondence with
teachers/staff. When utilizing a rubric and clear criteria, all
of these documents allow a supervisor to objectively evaluate
a trainee’s growing competency regarding the quality of writ-
ten materials that are critical for constituents that behavior
analysts serve.

Complimentary to objective measures, social validity mea-
sures (Wolf, 1978) can be used to evaluate socially significant
changes in the behavior of a trainee’s clients and satisfaction
with the performance of the trainee by parents and other pro-
fessionals. Social validity measures can also be used to assess
the trainee’s satisfaction with the goals, procedures, and out-
comes of the supervision process. Besides the weekly (or bi-
weekly) trainee rating forms we described earlier, supervisors
are encouraged to obtain this type of feedback from their
trainees. Although not mandated by the BACB, and while
such measures may not be appropriate means to evaluate the
effectiveness of the supervision process with regard to skill
development and client and staff performance outcomes, they
can establish more acceptable and mutually agreed-upon su-
pervision practices and serve as a tool for monitoring the
supervisor-trainee relationship. The objective is having the
trainee identify the methods that are most acceptable, and
allow supervisors to modify their approach during the
trainee’s experience (if needed) and enhance the supervision
process overall. The supervisor may disagree with the feed-
back provided by the trainee; however, this activity opens a
dialogue about what is and is not working and ideally, ensures
that the supervisor and trainee speak openly to each other.
Then, a plan can be created to alter the behavior of the trainee
and/or the supervisor. To reiterate, the foundation for this type
of feedback is grounded in the performance feedback litera-
ture and has clear applications for BCBA supervision.

To assist with this type of evaluation, we developed a
Supervision Monitoring and Evaluation Form as a project
during training at a doctoral internship program in clinical
psychology. The internship site had a strong behavioral orien-
tation and employed/trained behavior analysts. Duringmonth-
ly meetings with the Director of Training, the internship class
discussed strengths and weaknesses of supervisors,
commented about their previous experiences in supervision,
and read literature on competency-based supervision from
multiple fields. After aggregating all of the information, the
group developed the Supervision Monitoring and Evaluation
Form (see appendix).

After developing the form, the clinical interns piloted im-
plementation with their supervisors several times throughout

the year. This implementation not only gave the trainees (i.e.,
behavioral psychology interns) the opportunity to Btest-drive^
the measure, but also allowed them to provide feedback to
their supervisors. Supervisors, in fact, were uniformly positive
about the process of evaluation and readily embraced the feed-
back from their trainees.We suspect that this positive outcome
was due, in part, to having supervisors participate in develop-
ing the Supervision Monitoring and Evaluation Form at the
earliest stages and being receptive to having interns objective-
ly evaluate supervision practices. Again, it is the reciprocity
between trainees and supervisors that is hypothesized to en-
gender success and mutual satisfaction.

Continuing Education in Supervision

The above sections highlight the many responsibilities and
considerations that are present to behavior analytic supervi-
sors and the degree to which supervision of those pursuing a
BACB certification can be complex, time consuming, and
often requires skills beyond the research and practice skills
taught in the formal education of behavior analysts. In recog-
nition of this fact and in addition to maintaining competency
in behavior analysis, the BACB now requires behavior ana-
lysts to receive ongoing education in supervision (Behavior
Analyst Certification Board, 2015), such as effective supervi-
sion practices, ethical considerations regarding supervision,
and the standards of BACB supervision.

While supervisors can obtain formal continuing education
pertaining to supervision through conference presentations,
workshops, and online seminars, supervisors should also seek
out their own supervision (Behavior Analyst Certification
Board, 2012b). The current model highlights the importance
of reciprocal feedback and collaboration between the trainee
and supervisor, but it is also important to develop this type of
relationship among supervisors to encourage mentorship and
consultation in an effort to maintain and enhance supervisor
competence. In addition to consultation, to the extent possible,
it is important to have other competent supervisors observe
your supervision activities and provide feedback based on the
objective criteria we outlined previously.

Social validity measures may further be used as a self-
monitoring tool by providing a means for supervisors to con-
tinually evaluate their performance as a supervisor, which
provides an excellent model of continual self-assessment for
trainees. Placing focus on self-assessment will enable super-
visors to be aware of their strengths and weaknesses in super-
vision practices as well as clinical and research activities.
Using this self-assessment approach, competency-based su-
pervision brings accountability to the practice of behavior
analysis and sets the stage for quality supervision. A first next
step is to conduct an evaluation of the impact of self-
monitoring and evaluation on supervisor behavior and the

295Behav Analysis Practice (2016) 9:287–298

supervisory relationship, and in turn the impact on trainee skill
development.

Concluding Remarks: Initiating a Research Agenda
in Behavior Analytic Supervision

Competency-based models allow for systematic measurement
of both supervisor and trainee behavior throughout the entire
supervision process, which makes these approaches appropri-
ate for applied research. As there is a dearth of research in this
area, the specific direction of and topics that future research
may take are vast; however, there we present a few consider-
ations for research in this area. First, it will be essential to
objectively define and task analyze core competencies of
trainees and supervisors, especially those falling within the
realm of professional and ethical behaviors (e.g., specific
skills denoting professionalism, display of empathic behav-
ior), so that we can make objective conclusions about an in-
dividual’s competency. It will also be necessary to identify the
validity and value of various outcome measures such as social
validity, BACB exam pass rate, trainee observable behavior in
contrived and naturalistic settings, and client behavior change.

Within this framework, future research should focus on the
identification of effective methods for training generalizable
and maintainable skills to trainees. While the training of basic
procedural skills (e.g., implementing functional analysis con-
ditions) may be a first step, methods for training the complex
skills required of behavior analysts are needed (e.g.,
interviewing skills, problem solving, responding to ethical
dilemmas). For example, what are the considerations for
implementing BST for these skills? How many exemplars
are needed to obtain competency and generalization? What
are effective methods of prompting (e.g., video modeling)
and teaching for generalization?

Further, there is a tentative hypothesis that the quality of the
supervisory relationship as defined by the presence of rapport
and mutually agreed upon expectations will impact the super-
vision experience, notwithstanding the need for more thor-
ough empirical validation. For example, does the supervisory
relationship actually lead to quicker acquisition of skills and/
or a higher number of skill competencies obtained by the
trainee? In order to answer these and many other questions,
we must first objectively define the supervisory relationship.
While we presented an initial definition of the relationship
within this paper, objective indicators of such a relationship
must be described, measured, and incorporated into supervi-
sion practices. Thus, attempts to measure Bgood^ rapport have
focused on the presence of smiling and laughing and the ab-
sence of problem behavior (Magito et al., 2005) but other
measures appear relevant. Trust, for example, can be observed
as someone consistently following through on verbal state-
ments. BLikeability,^ another researched construct, translates
to a person who has a positive attitude, appears happy, speaks

in a pleasant tone, and helps others achieve their goals
(Sanders, 2006). Given the focus of the supervisory relation-
ship in all other models of supervision across disciplines, it
would be advantageous for behavior analysts to systematically
evaluate the impact of the relationship on trainee outcomes
and disseminate to the larger supervision community. Taken
together, comprehensive considerations of the supervisory
guidelines, ethical code and establishing a research agenda
in behavior analytic supervision will ideally lead to an effec-
tive, ethical, and professional group of rapidly growing prac-
ticing behavior analysts.

Compliance with Ethical Standards This article does not contain any
studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the au-
thors.

Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.

Funding Funding was not obtained for the creation of this manuscript.

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