Review the following essay questions. Write all the answers in a Word document and submit it to the appropriate assignment dropbox. Be sure to follow APA style.
Keep the following points in mind:
Module 1: Module Notes: The Four Functions of Management
The study of management evolved in the later part of the 19th century to help increase the efficiency of the work force. The large-scale production factories that evolved during the Industrial Revolution created a whole new era of labor and new management practices were needed to effectively manage and coordinate such large groups of workers. The study of management continued with a major focus on increasing worker and organizational efficiency.
Key thinkers in the study of management include Henri Fayol (theories of administration and labor); Frederick Taylor (scientific management); Max Weber (classical organization theory and bureaucracy model); Douglas McGregor (Theory X and Theory Y); Abraham Maslow (hierarchy of human needs model). Classical theorists understood and explained management in terms of planning, organizing, leading, and enforcing resources and processes within organizations to maximize efficiency and profit.
Management experts have classified the functions of management in different ways over the years. Henri Fayol, one of the first management theorists, identified five functions of management (Planning, Organizing, Commanding, Coordinating, and Controlling) as long ago as 1916. Luther Gullick created the following acronym for his own perspective on the functions of management: POSDCORB, which stands for Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting, and Budgeting. Harold Koontz and Cyril O’Donnell list the functions of management as: Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, and Controlling. Obviously, these theorists had their own versions of management functions; however, their ideas shared some commonalities. And, although classic theories of management were developed long ago, they are still quite valid. Clearly, the business environment has increasingly grown more complex since the early management theories were developed; yet, it is widely agreed that every manager performs four basic management functions: Planning, Organizing, Leading, and Controlling (POLC).
The POLC framework offers a foundational perspective of management functioning. It does not focus on the relationships between managers and workers, nor does it convey the growing complexities managers face in today’s hypercompetitive business environment. It also does not explain how managers should develop and maintain a motivated workforce. However, the POLC framework does provide a structured overview of the essential tasks managers need to perform on a daily basis to effectively and efficiently achieve desired organizational goals.
Managers perform the four functions of management to effectively and efficiently achieve organization goals.The four functions of management are integrated; they are not typically executed in a linear manner. The POLC activities are conducted on a daily basis throughout each layer of an organization, including human resources, operations, finance, marketing, and research and development (VEA Group Ltd., 2012). Let’s start with a brief explanation of the four functions of management.
Planning
Planning is a systematic process of defining a sequence of steps to attain organizational goals. More specifically, planning is the process of choosing a course of action, ensuring the required resources to implement the action will be available, prioritizing and scheduling the work to achieve the defined goals (Armstrong, 2014). Planning is often argued to be the very foundation of management, as it provides a focused roadmap to help attain goals in the most effective and efficient ways. The absence of a plan would make it quite challenging for managers to organize, lead, and control.Managers can make short-, medium-, or long-term goals. Short-term plans are geared to show results in a year or less.
Managers might make short-term plans to address concerns about the quality of products or the condition of production equipment. Medium-term plans aim to achieve results in several years. Medium-term plans are often an extension of short-term plans. They can be the follow-up plans to help ensure certain short-term problems do not reoccur. For example, a short-term plan might be to repair a machine and the medium-term plan might be to obtain a service contract to ensure maintenance and service for the machine. Long-term plans focus more on the organization’s social, economic, and political environment and on the development of strategies for improving the organization’s position in its particular industry. Long-term planning might include large capital expenditures such as the purchase of major equipment or facilities.
Types of Planning
Top-level management typically conducts strategic planning to determine how to competitively position the organization in its industry. Strategic planning is based on the organization’s mission. It involves a review of organizational strengths and weaknesses, as well as an analysis of competitive opportunities and threats. Strategic planning has a long timeframe of three or more years.Middle-level managers typically engage in tactical planning to develop the means to implement the strategic plan. Tactical planning has an intermediate timeframe of one to three years.
Operational planning involves the creation of specific action steps to support the strategic and tactical plans to attain organizational or departmental goals. Operational planning has a short-range timeframe of a year or less.
Plans of all types are made for a specific purpose. Plans layout the specific steps to reach the desired outcome and the costs associated with implementation of the plan.
The planning function typically requires a manager to: Forecast the type and amount of work and anticipate workload changes; Sequence the activities and events that are required to get the work done; Determine appropriate staffing; Set standards and targets for all aspects of work that will be measured and controlled; Plan operational procedures; Determine the needed materials; Identify the required equipment, tools, and space; Determine the budget and arrange for financial resources (Armstrong, 2014).
Organizing
Organizing involves the arrangement, preparation, and coordination of processes, activities, and resources to enact the plan to achieve the organizational goals. Organizing utilizes human, physical, and financial resources and all three resources are critical to attaining the desired results. Organizing is a process of distributing resources to implement the plan, identifying roles, and then assigning employees to execute the plan. When organizing, managers need to communicate information effectively to help ensure understanding and encourage cooperation.
The organizing function typically requires a manager to: Identify activities, such as quality control, inventory control, making sales, and recordkeeping; Combine similar and related activities into units or departments; Identify and allocate human, physical, and financial resources; Give authority to different levels of managers to clarify responsibilities, eliminate duplication of effort, and increase efficiency; Coordinate authority and reporting relationships among units and departments to promote collaboration.
Leading
Leading is the process of getting employees to believe in the plan. Managers who lead effectively will have employees who want to participate in achieving organizational goals. Leading involves motivating, energizing, and coordinating individuals and groups to achieve overall organizational goals. The leading process moves the organization to attaining its goals.
The leading function typically requires a manager to: Make decisions; Communicate with employees; Form effective groups/teams; Influence and lead employees;Motivate and encourage employees to achieve results.
Controlling
Controlling involves measuring work activity and monitoring systems to evaluate the level of progress that is being made toward achieving goals. Managers compare the progress that is being made to certain benchmarks and make necessary adjustments to ensure all that has been planned, organized, and led, is carried through. Controlling is a continual process.
The controlling function typically requires a manager to: Regularly measure the progress that has been achieved; Compare actual achievements with the plan; Make adjustments, as necessary, to correct any deviations from the plan.
The four basic functions of management are essential managerial activities and all effective managers plan, organize, lead, and control. However, managers do not necessarily complete one function after the other. The four managerial functions are related and intertwined with each other; they are also continuous. As such, managers need to move fluidly and dynamically between the processes to help ensure organizational goals are met. All four functions of management are important and necessary; however, the Module 1 discussion will provide you with the opportunity to explain which function you feel might be the most important.
Module 2: Module Notes: Management Roles, Styles, and Approaches
Good management is essential for any business to exist. For continued growth, it is necessary to have persistent, quality management skills applied at all levels of the organization. These skills include staff management, organizing, planning, communication, networking, and fiscal management, to name a few. Every day, managers solve difficult problems to keep organizations on course and to achieve phenomenal results. To be successful, every organization needs managers who can improve employee productivity, manage cash flow, mentor, build working relationships, and understand how to network.
A great example of a manager who is good at implementing these skills is David Rodnitzky, the CEO of 3Q Digital. His management style is to treat everyone as a customer.With this management approach, Rodnitzky makes everyone (clients, vendors, and employees) feel like they matter (Ideamensch, 2013). In this module, we will look at the various roles, styles, and approaches that managers take in carrying out the day-to-day business of the organization.
What is management and who is a manager?
A manager is a person responsible for the overall work performance of a group or several people. Management is the process of effectively and efficiently using the resources of the organization to achieve organizational objectives, or goals. As discussed in Module 1, these objectives are carried out through the four functions of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. The resources managers utilize to achieve results are human (personnel), material (tangible resources), financial (funds that are budgeted and used), and information from internal and external sources.
Now that we know the difference between a manager and management, the resources that can be used, and the management functions, let’s look at the different types of managers.
As you can see, operating-level (first/front-line) managers supervise the operating employees. They spend the most time in face-to-face leadership of the employees. Senior-level (middle-level) managers typically carry out coordination activities for the company. Information flows through them from lower levels to upper levels. Top-level managers are typically executives who are empowered to make major decisions that affect the company as a whole.
Management RolesAnother way we can understand management is to look at the many roles of a manager. A role is an expected activity or behavior that is tied to one’s specific job. Henry Mintzberg (Mind Tools Editorial Team, n.d.) identified ten managerial roles and categorized them under three management role categories: Interpersonal, Informational, and Decisional.
Interpersonal Roles: Figurehead, Leader, Liaison
Informational Roles: Monitor, Disseminator, Spokesperson
Decisional Roles: Entrepreneur, Disturbance Handler, Resource Allocator, Negotiator
Just as managers move through various functions of management, so too they move through various roles. A manager typically performs each of these roles at one point or another. No one manager will carry out one role constantly; they must have the skills to execute management specifics in all the roles.
Management Approaches
A number of management approaches have been proposed over the years. Each approach was influenced by the political and economic of its era. Early historical approaches to management include the Classical, Behavioral, and Quantitative perspectives. More modern approaches include the Quantitative, Systems, and Contingency perspectives.Some of the more popular approaches are described below.
Historical Management Approaches
Classical Approaches
Scientific-Frederick Taylor and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth were founders of the Scientific approach, which focused on improving the productivity of individual workers through the scientific study of work methods. Henry Taylor (often referred to as the Father of Scientific Management) and Max Weber were proponents for the Administrative Approach to management, which involved managing the entire organization. This approach recommends the application of scientific methods to analyze work and determine the most efficient methods of completing tasks. The basic beliefs underlying Scientific Management are: workers are economic beings who should be developed to their maximum potential; organizational and individual goals should be compatible; managers and workers should cooperate with each other; the pay system should be competitive. With this approach, jobs are systematically studied to aid in improving the way tasks are performed. The best employees are selected for jobs and trained in the most efficient ways. Higher wages are offered as incentives for greater effort. Supervisors are entrusted with the task of ensuring employees are following protocol. The Scientific Management approach dramatically increased productivity in all industries and this approach is still important in today’s work environment.
Administrative – Henry Fayol was a key contributor to the Administrative Management approach, which focused on managing the total organization.Fayol was the first to systemize management behavior and the first to identify major functions of management. Fayol is also famous for his 14 Principles of Management: 1) Division of Labor; 2) Authority and Responsibility; 3) Discipline; 4) Unity of Command; 5) Unity of Direction; 6) Subordination of Individual Interest to the Common Good; 7) Remuneration of Personnel; 8) Centralization; 9) Scalar Chain; 10) Order; 11) Equity; 12) Stability; 13) Initiative; and 14) Esprit de Corps.
Bureaucratic-The Bureaucratic approach to management is based upon firm rules, policies and procedures, a fixed hierarchy, and a clear division of labor. Max Weber was a main proponent of bureaucratic management. He felt a bureaucracy was a rational, ideal, and efficient organization based on principles of logic. He felt organizations should have five bureaucratic features: 1) divided labor with clearly defined responsibility and authority; 2) positions that are organized by hierarchy of authority; 3) rules and regulations for standardized behavior; written recordings of administrative decisions and actions; 4) separate ownership and management within an organization.
Behavioral Approaches
Human Relations Management-The Human Relations Movement evolved it the 1930s, partly due to the legalization of union-management collective bargaining. One main contributor to this theory was Elton Mayo, a professor of Industrial Research at the Harvard School of Business Administration. Mayo is known as the “Father of the Human Relations Movement.” Mayo and his colleagues conducted three major studies at Western Electric’s Hawthorne Plant. These studies, referred to as The Hawthorne Legacy, include:the Illumination Studies; the Relay Assembly Room Study; and the Bank Wiring Room Study. The Illumination experiment (1924-1927) was conducted to determine the relationship of lighting levels to worker productivity. The results showed that worker productivity increased as the lighting levels decreased. Several years later, the Relay Assembly Room Study was conducted to see if special privileges, such as leaving workstations without permission, rest periods, free lunches, and variations in pay would affect productivity. The results showed these factors did increase productivity. The Bank Wiring Room Study was conducted to determine whether or not a peer work group could influence the behavior of another work group. Pioneer and management consultant, Mary Parker Follett, saw employees as people with complex attitudes, beliefs, and needs. She advised managers to motivate workers, rather than simply demand work performance. Abraham Maslow and Douglas McGregor, also key proponents of the Human Relations Movement, believed better human relations could increase worker productivity. McGregor contributed his Theory Y philosophy, which suggested managers could accomplish more through workers by regarding them as energized, creative, committed, and responsible individuals. In 1943, Maslow published his Need Hierarchy theory of motivation. The Needs Hierarchy pyramid model proposes motivation is a function of five basic needs: Physiological Needs, Safety Needs, Social Needs, Esteem Needs, and Self-Actualization.
Behavioral Science-This underlying premise of the Behavioral Science approach is that individuals are motivated to work for a number of reasons beyond making money and forming interpersonal relationships. The Behavioral Science approach developed into the broader field of Organizational Behavior and the principles of this approach are being practiced in most, if not all, organizations.
The Behavioral approaches focus on human behavior and the use of motivation and encouragement to promote productivity and achievement.
Modern Management Approaches
Quantitative-The Quantitative approach applies quantitative methods to management and includes the Management Science and Operations Management approaches.Management Science primarily uses mathematics to help with problem solving and decision-making. Operations Management focuses on the most efficient manner of managing the production and delivery of products and services.
Systems-The Systems approach to management views the organization as a system of three interrelated parts that operate together to achieve a common purpose: input, process, and output. The components of these three parts depend upon the nature of a particular business.Inputs could include raw materials, funds or technology. The process could refer to manufacturing and quality assurance operations in an industrial setting, or activities related to management in the service industry. Outputs would be the products or results of the undertaking. The systems approach emphasizes the use of feedback response to help correct or minimize errors when executing certain operations.
Contingency-Developed by Jay Lorsch and Paul Lawrence, this approach is sometimes referred to as the Situational approach. It suggests organizations are different and a manager’s approach should vary, or be contingent upon, the individual and the environmental situation. Fred Fiedler’s Contingency Theory suggests leadership effectiveness depends not only on the style of leading but also the leader’s control over a situation.
Quality Movement-The Quality Movement evolved in the 1980s. The premise of this approach is that employees are active social beings who function more productively in more humane work environments. Motorola engineer, Bill Smith, developed Six Sigma in 1986 to achieve 99.9997% quality by reducing waste and eliminating defects. Total Quality Management (TQM) refers to a comprehensive management approach used to enhance quality and productivity in business organizations. TQM works horizontally across an organization, involving all departments and employees and extending backward and forward to include both suppliers and clients/customers. W. Edwards Deming was a main proponent of the Total Quality Management (TQM) approach, which is dedicated to continuous quality improvement, training, and customer satisfaction.
The management approaches described above do not present a complete list of all management approaches. Management approaches are still evolving. In the article, Innovating our Thinking About Management: A new Model, Powers (2014) discusses the need to modify management theories and approaches. He discusses the updating of management theory and the involvement of leadership in decision-making. There is no one right way to manage, and understanding various approaches truly enhances a manager’s abilities.
Management Styles
A management style is the method of leadership used by a manager and there are various management styles that each manager may use. There is not one best management style; in fact, a manager may be required to implement different management styles depending on different situations. Some common management styles are briefly described below.
Authoritarian-Managers using an authoritarian, or autocratic, management style make decisions unilaterally and without much regard for subordinates. An authoritarian manager holds all authority and responsibility and typically assigns work with expected results. While this management style can project confidence, it can also limit decision-making opportunities for others. This management style is appropriately used during times of crises, yet it runs the risk of reducing the job satisfaction and morale of subordinates. There are two types of autocratic leaders: directive and permissive. A directive autocrat makes decisions unilaterally and closely supervises subordinates. A permissive autocrat makes decisions unilaterally, but gives subordinates latitude in carrying out their work.
Consultative-Although his style of management tends to consider the best interests of the employees and the organization, as a whole, it is considered to be a more paternalistic and dictatorial style. This style can promote employee loyalty; yet, it can also result in employees becoming dependent upon the manager.
Persuasive-Managers using a persuasive management style maintain control of the whole decision-making process and they try to convince employees of the management decisions that have been made. This style is sometimes appropriate when the manager has the expertise to make a decision and needs to convince employees of its benefits.
Democratic-The democratic, or participative, manager holds responsibility, yet delegates authority to accomplish work.The democratic style of management allows employees to be a part of the decision-making process.This style can be especially useful when complicated decisions requiring a range of specialized skills need to be made. Employees are often more satisfied when their opinions are valued; however, this style typically requires much more communication between a manager and employees and that can slow down the decision-making process.
Chaotic-The chaotic style is a more current style of management. It allows employees to have total control over the decision-making process. As more freedom is allowed in the decision-making process, this style often results in more innovative decisions.
Laissez-faire-Managers who use the laissez-faire style of management gives away authority and allows employees considerable freedom with ideas and decision-making.The laissez-fair manager provides guidance to employees, as needed.
Management by Walking Around (MBWA)-MBWA is a style managers use to gather as much information as possible to prevent challenges from becoming larger problems.Managers who use this style listen carefully to employees’ suggestions and concerns.This style helps managers to obtain information that they might not receive through formal channels of communication and to also check the level of employee morale.
The management styles listed above are not the only management styles. In his article, Lloyd (2011) also discusses the Micromanaging style, which keeps close tabs on employees. There are also the Directive, Affiliative, Pacesetting, and Coaching styles of management.
So far, we have looked at management levels, roles, approaches, and styles. In the following activities you will have an opportunity to find a current event tied to management levels, roles, styles, and approaches. Additionally, our discussion forum in this module will expand on roles that managers take on within an organization.
Module 3 Notes
Are leaders managers? Are managers leaders? This module explores these Image of an open notebook with a pencil placed on topimportant questions.
While the words “leader” and “manager” might seem to be synonymous, they are not. “Leadership expert, Bernard Bass, concluded, leaders manage and managers lead, but the two activities are not synonymous” (Bass & Bass, as cited in Kreitner& Kinicki, 2013, p. 464). Both leadership and management are needed to successfully achieve the goals of an organization; however, leaders and managers have distinct sets of activities and functions. While some aspects of leadership and management overlap, it is good to distinguish between the two. The chart below shows the differences between a leader and a manager.
Leader
Manager
has vision has objectives
sets the direction plans the details
takes risks minimizes risks
encourages people instructs employees
fosters ideas assigns duties
persuades tells
focuses on the future focuses on the bottom line
challenges the status quo accepts the status quo
sees the opportunities sees the problems
thinks long-term thinks short-term
creates new roads follows the map
motivates approves
breaks rules establishes rules
inspires controls
reaches beyond expectations meets expectations
does the right thing does things right
There are four commonalities among the many definitions of leadership: 1) leadership is a process between leaders and followers; 2) leadership involves social influence; 3) leadership occurs at multiple levels in an organization; and 4) leadership focuses on goal accomplishment (Northouse, as cited in Krietner & Kinicki, 2013). Based on these similar leadership themes, leadership could be defined as “a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2013). To influence means to affect, and leaders must influence their followers.
With the POLC (planning, organizing, leading, and controlling) framework in mind, we understand leading is one of the four managerial functions. Recall that to lead is to motivate, energize, and coordinate with individuals and groups to achieve overall organizational goals. Some key concepts to understand about leadership are: it is a process, it involves influence, and it occurs in a group with a focus on goal attainment.
Power, in a leadership or management context, can be described as the potential to influence. We could say that people have power when they have the ability to influence others to accomplish a task or to carry out a certain course of action. Within leadership and management, there are two types of power, position (legitimate, reward, and coercive) and personal (referent and expert). Northouse (2010), defines personal power as “the influence capacity a leader derives from being seen by followers as likable and knowledgeable” and positional power as “power a person derives from a particular office or rank” (p. 7). For a further study on the bases of power, please refer back to the 2008 article by B.H. Raven, The Bases of Power and the Power/Interaction Model of Interpersonal Influence (Links to an external site.), which is required reading.
Can leaders be born? If we agree they can, then we are looking at leadership as an innate trait as opposed to a learned process. A trait is a physical or personality characteristic; a leadership trait is a physical or personality characteristic that can be used to distinguish a leader from a follower.
The Great Man theory of leadership suggests leaders are born with an innate ability to lead. Jago(1982) and his work suggested that leadership resides in select people. Four well-known great leaders are: George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, Steve Jobs, and Margaret Thatcher. All of these leaders led differently, but what do they hold in common? There are a few items that come to mind. They are all great speakers, they are motivators, they understand human dynamics, they have vision, they are honest, they are competent, and they are innovators. Looking at these traits, some would say that these align with tendencies of natural-born leaders. Natural-born leaders are those who display these characteristics, or traits, and naturally fall into leadership roles throughout their life.
Trait theory evolved in the 1930s, after the Great Man theory of leadership. A major tenant of this theory is that individual characteristics of leaders are different from those of non-leaders. Trait theorists believed that leadership traits were not innate, but could be developed through experience and learning. Trait leadership outlines integrated patterns of personal characteristics that reflect a range of individual differences and foster consistent leader effectiveness across a variety of group and organizational situations (Zaccaro, Kemp, & Bader, 2004). This model of leadership is based on the characteristics of leaders and can be used to predict effectiveness in a leadership position. If one looks at the traits and compares them to a leader, they can then assess that leader’s potential to succeed in a given situation.
Note that with the trait theory, traits may not solely identify whether the leader will be successful, however, they are pre-conditions that can show potential. John, Naumann, and Soto (2008) state that the trait theory is a key approach in the study of personality and that it “holds that an individual’s personality is made up of a broad spectrum of established characteristics, or traits, that underlie the behaviors exhibited by that individual.The interplay of a person’s diverse traits shapes a unique personality for each individual” (p. 121). The trait theory seeks to discover these personality characteristics and predict which individuals would do better in a given situation.
Ralph Stogdill and Richard Mann concluded there are five traits that distinguish leaders from followers: intelligence, dominance, self-confidence, energy and activity levels, and task-relevant knowledge (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2013). James Kouzes and Barry Posner identified four leadership traits: honesty, forward-looking, inspiring, and competent. Daniel Goleman focused on emotional intelligence and suggested successful leaders have the traits of self-awareness, insight, empathy, and the capacity to self-reflect. Leadership expert, Barbara Kellerman, added the importance of considering undesirable leadership traits and identified “bad” leaders as being incompetent, rigid, intemperate, callous, corrupt, insular, and evil.
So how do managerial traits compare to leadership traits? Some would argue that because managers lead, they share some of the same traits as leaders. Based on their research, Lounsbury, Sundstrom, Gibson, Loveland, and Drost (2016) concluded that managers are assertive, work driven, agreeable, extraverted, emotionally stable, optimistic, customer-service oriented, and conscientious.There are many types of mangers, though, and some successful managers possess other traits than those that are listed here.
Leadership, as a process, is similar to management in as much as both involve influence, working with people, and goal accomplishment. However, it is also distinctly different. Remember Northouse’s(2010) assertion regarding managing chaos, which was touched on in this week’s opening comments. We have also seen that management revolves around core functions (plan, organize, lead, control) and can be viewed as consistent. Therefore, a major distinction between leadership and management is that management seeks order and stability, whereas leadership seeks constructive change. Musselwhite, in his 2014 piece on understanding leadership styles, focused on the different types of leadership styles and covered the importance of having self-awareness as a leader.
Kotter (1998), in his study on the various differences between leadership and management, asserted that “management produces order and consistency” and “leadership produces change and movement” (p. 3). Additionally, in direct contrast to the planning, leading, organizing, and controlling functions of management, leadership “is about establishing direction, creating a vision, aligning people, communicating goals, motivation, inspiring, and satisfying needs” (p. 8). There truly are several distinct differences between managing and leading. For instance, leaders produce change and movement, whereas managers produce order and consistency. Additionally, leaders establish direction, motivate, and inspire, while managers establish rules, procedures, and provide structure. On the other hand, there are also consistencies between the two. For example, both management and leadership involve influencing groups to attain goals. Moreover, when managers influence groups to accomplish tasks, they are using leadership. Finally, when leaders use any portion of the POLC framework, they are using management principles. To see a different perspective on leadership versus management, please review McGirt’s 2012 article, Do You Pass the Leadership Test? (Links to an external site.), which discusses leadership abilities and managerial skills.
One final item to discuss in this section pertains to management skills. Managers, due to inherent responsibilities, are typically task-oriented, as opposed to leaders, who are not. To be effective in a management position, a manager must possess certain skills, which are different from leadership traits. These skills may be categorized as technical, human, or conceptual. Technical skills pertain to work proficiency or knowledge about a specific type of work. An example of this proficiency could be construction engineers building a skyscraper. Human skills relate to working with people. Many call this having ‘people skills’. An example of human skills would be the understanding of coworkers’ needs during a staff meeting. Conceptual skills are the ability to work with ideas and concepts. Notice the primary difference with this skill is that it does not involve working with people or things. Managers with solid conceptual skills are comfortable talking about organizational ideas, can see the ‘big picture’, and can translate this picture so that everyone understands.
In management, all of these skills are important to be an effective manager, but are also necessary for the group or organization. Interestingly, these same skills are useful in being an effective leader.
In this module, we have compared and contrasted leadership to management. Remember, there are three key concepts to understand regarding leadership: it is a process, it involves influence, and it occurs in a group and has specific goal attainment. Furthermore, we outlined how management aims to produce order and consistency, versus establishing direction as leadership does. Management utilizes the planning, leading, organizing, and controlling functions. Finally, we reviewed various traits of leadership and management. In the following activities, you will have the chance to expand your understanding of both leadership and management.
Module 4: Module Notes: Leadership Models Part 1
So far in this course, we have already distinguished leadership from management, outlined the four functions of management, and examined how a manager performs these functions. Managers are typically empowered by formal authority due to their position or office. However, leaders deal with influence, and this influence may or may not be due to position or authority. The development of leadership and the study of theory, along with various leadership models, are the heart of this module.
Historically speaking, the trait theories reach further back than the servant leadership and situational leadership models. However, because of the widespread use of the latter two models, we will begin our discussion with the situational approach to leadership, and then move into servant leadership. We will close the module notes section with the trait theory.
Situational Approach
The situational approach, often referred to as sit-lead, is founded on the premise that different situations demand different types of leadership. This approach was developed by Hersey and Blanchard in the late 1960s, and is based on Reddin’s 3D management theory.
The situational approach to leadership examines the fit between the leaders and the situation. It also establishes guidelines to help managers better achieve this fit. Situational theorists believe that managers choose leadership styles based on leadership situations. They think that managers adjust their decision-making, orientation, and motivational approaches based upon a unique combination of factors in their situation. Some of these combinations include characteristics of employees, types of work, organizational structures, personal preferences, and upper-level management’s influence.
In developing the situational leadership model, Hersey and Blanchard, based their approach on task behavior (amount of direction provided) and relationship behavior (the amount of socio-emotional support). This task versus relationship would be determined not only by the situation, but also the maturity level of the followers. To determine the appropriate leadership style for a given situation, the leader first determines the maturity levels of the followers relating to a specific task. As maturity levels increase, the leader should reduce task behavior and increase relationship behavior until the follower reaches an increased maturity level.
Once maturity levels are identified, a manager can determine the appropriate leadership style. The four styles in this theory are telling, selling, participating, and delegating.
The Four Leadership Styles in the Situational Leadership Approach
Telling (or Directing) – This style reflects high task/low relationship behavior (Style 1). Moreover, the leader provides clear instructions and specific direction. Overall, the telling style is best matched with a low follower readiness level.
Selling (or Coaching) – This style reflects high task/high relationship behavior (Style 2). In this style, the leader encourages two-way communication and helps build confidence and motivation on the part of the employee. However, the leader still has responsibility and controls decision-making. The selling style is best matched with a moderate follower readiness level.
Participating (or Supporting) – This style reflects high relationship/ low task behavior (Style 3). With this style, the leader and followers share decision-making and no longer need or expect the relationship to be directive. With the participating style, it is best matched with a moderate follower readiness level.
Delegating – This style reflects low relationship/low task behavior (S4). The delegating style is appropriate for leaders whose followers are ready to accomplish a particular task and are both competent and motivated to take full responsibility. Overall, this style is best matched with a high follower readiness level (Hersey & Blanchard, 1991, p. 45).
The premise of the Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership model is that leaders should be flexible and adjust their styles, accordingly, as followers and situations change over time. The model also suggests that when the correct styles are used in lower-readiness situations, the abilities and confidence of followers will increase. Leaders who are flexible and who understand the development of their followers can become less directive as the followers mature.
The Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership model has often been used in management development programs because the basic premise of the model has merit. The model suggests leaders consider changing their styles to align better with their employees and the situations at hand. In addition, the model suggests leaders consider developing employee skills and confidence through training.
Servant Leadership
The principles of servant leadership are consistent with other specialized leadership styles such as situational leadership. With servant leadership, there is a focus on serving the needs of others. This serving could be of employees, customers, investors, and so on. Servant leadership can be traced back at least four decades. In the 1970s, the servant leadership process was linked to a natural feeling of wanting to serve while aspiring to lead. However, some would assert that servant leadership has been around since ancient times, and the theory evolved from the works of ancient philosophers. Greenleaf (1977), who first coined the phrase “servant leadership,” argued that it is an internal lifelong journey. This would mean that servant leadership could change throughout one’s lifetime.
Fast-forwarding, Parris (2013) wrote, “Servant leadership theory’s emphasis on service to others and recognition that the role of organizations is to create people who can build a better tomorrow resonates with scholars and practitioners who are responding to the growing perceptions that corporate leaders have become selfish and who are seeking a viable leadership theory to help resolve the challenges of the twenty-first century” (p. 378). Some people have established principles, or characteristics, that align with servant leadership. These principles include listening, empathy, awareness, persuasion, foresight, and growth, to name a few. In 2006, Wheeler added to the servant leadership model by incorporating five factors, or attributes, including emotional healing and organizational stewardship.
Servant leadership can have long-lasting impact on how authority and empowerment are viewed in leadership situations. As Hersey and Blanchard (1996) stated, “The key to successful leadership today is influence, not authority” (p. 43). An important point to note here is that when servant leadership was first conceived, the primary focus was not on leading, but on serving people’s needs. It can be inferred that this concept makes it a perfect model for customer-oriented businesses. This theory can be used to improve business performance. Servant leadership in business could represent a decentralized structure, which not only focuses on empowering the employees, but also encourages innovation. Moving from the front-line employee to the management level, managers can work hand-in-hand with employees to see what is needed to serve the customers. Arguably, this allows the business to have a higher state of awareness, because each level knows what is occurring at all levels of the firm.
Servant leaders are often characterized as being good listeners who are aware and empathetic of others. Servant leaders tend to use persuasiveness, rather than positional power, to influence others. They are stewards of the people and resources they oversee and are committed to fostering an environment that promotes personal, professional, and even spiritual growth in others. Servant leaders strive to create a sense of community.
Servant leaders are respectful of others and employees appreciate being respected. Research suggests servant leadership is “positively associated with employees’ performance, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, creativity, organizational citizenship behaviors, and perceptions of justice” and “negatively related to counterproductive work behavior” (Kreitner & Kinicki, 3013). As this type of leadership promotes positive employee behavior and performance, managers are encouraged to utilize this style of leadership.
In this module, we have reviewed two specific leadership models: situational leadership and servant leadership. We saw that the situational approach is based on the premise that different situations demand different types of leadership. In servant leadership, there is a focus on serving the needs of others. In the following activity, you will have the chance to expand on one of these two models.
Essay Questions Rubric
This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome: Introduction
15 pts – The introduction presents a concise lead-in to the essay.
12 pts – The introduction provides too much information about the topic; simply like a summary of the whole essay.
10 pts – The introduction provides little information on the topic.
5 pts – The introduction does not give any information about what to expect in the essay.
0 pts – The introduction is missing.
This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome: Content
40 pts – Balanced presentation of relevant and legitimate information that clearly supports a central purpose or argument and displays evidence of a thoughtful, in-depth analysis of the essay topic.
32 pts- Information provides reasonable support for a central purpose all the time or argument and displays evidence of a basic analysis of the essay topic.
28 pts – Information provides reasonable support for a central purpose or argument most of the time but is not able to display evidence of a basic analysis of the significance of the topic.
24 pts – Information supports a central purpose or argument at times. Analysis is vague or too general.
0 pts – Central purpose or argument is not clearly identified. No analysis is provided.
This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome: Organization and support
15 pts – The ideas are arranged logically to support the purpose or argument. They flow smoothly from one to another and are clearly linked to each other. Substantial references to the course content and/or text and the sources are properly cited.
12 pts – The ideas are arranged logically to support the central purpose or argument. They are usually clearly linked to each other. Substantial references to the course and text are used and most are properly cited.
10 pts – In general, the writing is arranged logically, although occasionally ideas fail to make sense together. There are a number of references to the course content or text and citations are given.
5 pts – The writing is presented in a somewhat logical order. Need a little bit more efforts in putting the ideas to make sense together. Minimal references to the course content or text are documented.
0 pts – The writing is not logically organized. Most of the time, ideas fail to make sense together. No references to the course content or text are documented.
This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome: Spelling and grammar
10 pts – There are no spelling or grammar errors.
8 pts – Only one or two errors in grammar and spelling.
5 pts – More than two errors in grammar and/or spelling.
3 pts – A few grammar and/or spelling errors.
0 pts – Minimal references to the course content or text are documented and very frequent grammar and/or spelling errors.
This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome: Synthesis and conclusion
20 pts – Information is logically and creatively organized with smooth transitions. Presents a logical explanation for findings.
17 pts – Logically organized and makes good connections among ideas. Presents a logical explanation for findings.
14 pts – Needs some effort to make it a well-constructed paper and the findings need to be presented more logically.
10 pts – Was not logically or effectively structured and presents an illogical explanation for findings.
0 pts – No synthesis and no findings were found.
Total Points: 100
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