Note: In nursing practice, it is not uncommon to review current literature and share findings with your colleagues. Approach this Assignment as though you were presenting the information to your colleagues.
In a 5- to 10-slide PowerPoint presentation, address the following:
What type of group was discussed?
Who were the participants in the group? Why were they selected?
What was the setting of the group?
How often did the group meet?
What was the duration of the group therapy?
What curative factors might be important for this group and why?
What “exclusion criteria” did the authors mention?
Group Psychotherapy in Women With a History Of Sexual Abuse
Topic: Assessing Client Families
Ugonma Nwokorie
Walden University
NURS – 6650N
Psychotherapy with Groups and Families
1/1/2019
Introduction of The Article
Women that are abused sexually is one of the national concern.
Women are the most victims during childhood and adulthood.
Psychotherapy is the treatment usually used in treating sexually abuse women.
Use of group psychotherapy has shown some reduction in their mental symptoms on victims.
Sexually abused women has some psychological effects in their life and can cause them to have some mental disorder. Most of the victims are women and mostly in both child and adulthood. The preferred modality treatment use in treating sexually abused women is psychotherapy because its aim is to assist the women in healing their traumatic issues that can help them both physically and emotionally. Using group psychotherapy for women that have experienced sexual abuse has shown some decrease in the symptoms such as depression, anxiety, and any past trauma that they have got through. This therapy can be used both immediate and short term therapy.
Type of group
“Sexual abuse of women is a global concern that has many psychologically effects and can cause psychiatric illness and group psychotherapy is one of the preferred treatment modalities” (Sayın, Candansayar, & Welkin, 2013).
participants in the group and study design
Design: Is a prospective cohort study
Participants: The researches selected women that have history of childhood or adulthood sexual abuse
The Mean age is 31.74 who were recruited weekly for twelve sessions in a group therapy.
They selected depending on their application from different areas.
This study was conducted as a way of finding out the benefits and effectiveness of group psychotherapy for women that have history of sexually abused. The forty-seven women that were selected have history of sexual abuse during their childhood or adulthood. The were given twelve sessions which they meet weekly for twelve weeks. This session last for about 90 minutes each time they meet. These group of people were selected according to their application from inpatient, outpatient, residence such as domestic violence shelter and were also clients of the researchers.
participants in the group and study design (cont.)
Instruments: The researchers use different tools during their research.
Instruments include the Hamilton depression rating scales, clinician administered Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and other instruments.
They were given group therapeutic factor questionnaires to evaluate their success.
The assessment tools used by the researchers include Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, the Hamilton Anxiety Scale, the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale, and the Dissociative Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. The researchers also used group therapeutic factors questionnaire were given to the clients to evaluate their baseline maladaptation coping skills and their symptoms during the week of the sessions such as week six, twelve, and six month follow up (Sayın, Candansayar, & Welkin, 2013).
Participants Exclusion Criteria
This study include women younger than 16 years of age
Women having some mental disorder
Not able to complete the consent.
The exclusion criteria that the researchers used for the participants include adding clients that are younger than 16 years old, participants with mental disorder which includes psychotic disorder, actively using substance, alcohol dependency, mental retardation, intense suicidal ideation, and clients that are not able to complete the informed consent.
Participants Goals
Use of group psychotherapy to client with mental and psychological symptoms from sexual abuse.
Find a therapeutic factors to help the clients to observe the differences and the similarities compared to other countries.
To find out if culture has a role for clients coping with sexual abuse.
The use of group psychotherapy to treat clients that are sexually abuse and have symptoms of mental disorder and psychological symptoms. Also allowing them to explore the treatment results in Turkish women. Finding a therapeutic factors that can help the clients know the differences and similarities of sexual abuse responses in Turkish women using group psychotherapy and to compare with other countries. Also the researchers wants to know if culture has any roles in sexually abuse clients coping skills.
How Group Psychotherapy is Applied
Use of different methods in group psychotherapy for trauma clients
How sexual trauma effects interpersonally and psychological was discussed in group sessions 1 to 3.
How the group shared their sexual abuse stories were discussed in group sessions 4 to 7.
The depth themes and their commonality were discussed in group sessions 8 to 10.
Group sessions 11 to 12 talks about the way the therapy provided a closure for the clients.
The researchers used the group psychotherapy study to employ different methods such as cognitive behavioral therapy, interpersonal therapy, narrative therapy, psychoeducation, expressive techniques that are used to focus on the trauma experience. In different sessions the researchers used different techniques which were discussed in different sessions to accomplish the group goals. During group sessions 1 to 3, the researchers formatted rules, the safety issues, use of relation techniques, and how the sexual trauma effects their well being and psychologically. During sessions 4 to 7, the participants shared their sexual abuse stories. Sessions 8 to 10 the participants talks about their commonalities and the sessions 11 to 12 summaries everything including the feedback and plan for future.
Benefits of Group Psychotherapy
Group psychotherapy is used as an ideal plan option for women that have experienced sexual abuse.
Assuring the sexually abuse women safety and support from their peers help with healing
It helps to reduce the feelings of slow self esteem and providing them ways to have the opportunity to have positive learning.
Group psychotherapy is an effective therapy to be used for women with history of sexual abuse in making sure the clients have safety and support from the peers to help with healing. This method helps because when they hear it from their peers they believe and understand their situation and the settings that are in. it reduces their feelings of low self esteem, loneliness and shame when in the group therapy. It helps them to have positive learning and good therapeutic coping skills.
Conclusion and Results
Group psychotherapy is an effective therapy for women that are sexually abuse
It reduces the symptoms of depression, anxiety, PTSD, and other mental illness according to the 12 sessions research done
It reduces shame, increases self esteem, and isolating themselves
Also knowing the cultural differences will be considered during the use of this plan.
Group psychotherapy had showed that is is effective for women that are sexually abuse as evidenced by the women showing reduction of depression symptoms, anxiety, PTSD, and other mental illness after the researchers completed the 12 sessions in 12 weeks. It also reduces self-esteem, shame and loneliness in clients without looking at the client’s cultural differences and the size of the group. In my practicum site, use of group psychotherapy for this group of clients will be used and further researched to have an effective outcome and will benefit the clients in a long run. Cultural background will also be investigated due to its effect on clinical practice and the treatment effective ness.
References;
Bryant-Davis T,., Chung, H., & Tilman, S., (2009). From margins to the center: Ethnic minority women and the mental effects of sexual assault. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse 10, 330-357.
National Sexual Assault Hotline, (2018). RAINN. Retrieved from https://www.rain.org/statistics/victims-sexual-violence
Sayın, A., Candansayar, S., & Welkin, L. (2013). Group psychotherapy in women with a history of sexual abuse: What did they find helpful? Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22(23/24), 3249–3258. doi:10.1111/jocn.12168
Ziaaddini, H., Ebrahim-Nejad, B., & Nakhaee, N. (2013). The effectiveness of group therapy on the family functioning of individuals under methadone treatment: A clinical trial. Addiction & health, 5(1-2), 1.
ADOLESCENT AND FEMALE SEXUALITY
Group psychotherapy in women with a history of sexual abuse: what
did they find helpful?
Aslıhan Sayın, Selc�uk Candansayar and Leyla Welkin
Aims and objectives. To define the effects of group psychotherapy in women with a history of sexual abuse, to find possible
predictors for dropout and treatment outcome rates and to find which therapeutic factors of group psychotherapy are per-
ceived by group members to be most helpful.
Background. Sexual abuse of women is a global concern and causes many psychiatric and psychological sequelae. Group
psychotherapy is one of the preferred treatment modalities.
Design. Prospective cohort study.
Methods. Forty-seven women with a history of childhood and/or adulthood sexual abuse were recruited for weekly 12-session
group psychotherapy. Subjects were given the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale, the Cli-
nician Administered Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Scale, the Dissociative Experiences Scale, the Childhood Trauma Ques-
tionnaire and the Group Therapeutic Factors Questionnaire. Re-evaluations were made after the 6th and 12th session and
also at a six-month follow-
up session.
Results. Group psychotherapy significantly reduced participants’ levels of depression (screening/12th session mean scores,
22�45/11�10), anxiety (15�45/4�32) and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (42�27/9�32), and this decline became
statistically significant at the 6th session and tended to persist at the six-month follow-up. Higher levels of dissociative
symptoms at baseline were associated with less response to treatment, but higher levels of attendance at group sessions.
Group members rated existential factors (41�40 � 12�39), cohesiveness (37�42 � 8�32) and universalism (37�56 � 7�11) as
the most helpful therapeutic factors.
Conclusion. Group psychotherapy was significantly effective in reducing levels of depression, anxiety and posttraumatic
stress disorder symptoms in this sample of women. Dissociation had a significant effect on both treatment outcome and
treatment adherence. For this sample of women, group psychotherapy was most helpful for reducing feelings of stigma, iso-
lation and shame.
Relevance to clinical practice. Group psychotherapy can be used as a preferred treatment method for women from different
cultural backgrounds with a history of sexual abuse.
Key words: dissociation, group psychotherapy, post-traumatic stress disorder, sexual abuse, therapeutic factors, women
Accepted for publication: 31 October 2012
Introduction
Sexual abuse is a universal problem, and victims are most
often women. A meta-analysis/ of prevalence of child sexual
abuse in adults using 65 articles from 22 countries reported
that 7�9% of men and 19�7% of women had experienced
sexual abuse prior to the age of 18 (Pereda et al. 2009). In
a random sample of the general population in USA, sexual
assault during adulthood was reported by 22% of women
and 3�8% of men, and risk factors for adult sexual assault
Authors: Aslıhan Sayın, MD, Associate Professor, Psychiatry Dep-
artment, Gazi University Hospital, Ankara; Selc�uk Candansayar,
MD, Professor, Psychiatry Department, Gazi University Hospital,
Ankara; Leyla Welkin, PhD, Independent Scholar, Pomegranate
Connection Program, Ankara, Turkey
Correspondence: Aslıhan Sayın, Associate Professor, Psychiatry
Department, Gazi University Hospital, Bes�evler, Ankara 06500,
Turkey. Telephone: +90 532 5840438.
E-mail: aslihansayin@gmail.com
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258, doi: 10.1111/jocn.12168 3249
include younger age, being female, having been divorced,
sexual abuse in childhood and physical assault during
adulthood (Elliott et al. 2004). In Turkey, sexual abuse,
especially intrafamilial sexual abuse, continues to be vastly
under-reported to authorities due to social taboos (Agirtan
et al. 2009). The few published studies report a sexual
abuse prevalence of 11–37% in the adolescent population
(Aras et al. 1996, Alikasifoglu et al. 2006).
Childhood sexual abuse has been associated with long-
term psychiatric problems in adult life, including dissocia-
tive and post-traumatic stress disorders, depression, anxiety,
phobia, substance abuse, eating disorders, suicidal ideation
and behaviours, self-harm behaviours, problems in interper-
sonal and intimate relationships, impaired self-esteem, and
impaired identity formation (for a review, see Heim et al.
2010). Although these psychiatric problems are universal
among sexual abuse victims from all over the world,
women’s coping styles and the treatment for these problems
by mental health providers vary greatly between different
countries and cultures. For example, both legal and tradi-
tional approaches to sexual abuse victims in Turkey may
consider the marriage of an abuser and the victim as a
‘solution’. In some Middle Eastern countries and most com-
monly among Muslim groups like Turkey, family honour is
closely tied to the sexuality of its female members. Accord-
ing to these traditional values, young women are expected
to be virgins when they marry to assure their purity and
moral propriety. In this traditional system, women are not
primarily considered as individuals, and one of their most
important roles is to embody the family’s good reputation
and honour (Arin 2001, Sever & Yurdakul 2001). These
beliefs can be so strong that some families are prepared to
sacrifice the lives of female members in order to restore
family honour. After a rape, society perceives the violated
woman not as a victim who needs protection, but as some-
one whose impurity has debased the family honour. Her
relatives may opt to undo the shame of this violation by
taking her life. But murder is not the only possible remedy.
An alternative to murdering her is to arrange a marriage
for her, preferably with the person who violated her honour
through rape. This procedure of imposing a ‘reparative’
marriage on a violated woman is believed to remedy her
perceived offence against her family. Based on this set of
beliefs, the practice was until very recently legally sanc-
tioned by the Turkish state and was considered to ‘protect
the girl from social stigma’. After such a forced marriage,
the criminal investigation was dropped, although a rapist
could still face criminal charges if he divorced his wife
within five years ‘without a legitimate reason’ (Fledner
2000). Despite changes in the laws, some courts continue
to follow these principles. These local/cultural approaches
may encourage more abuses of victims and may also have
an influence on mental health approaches.
Given that sexual abuse of women is common and has
lifelong psychological effects, efforts have been made to
find effective treatment methods for these women. Group
psychotherapy has been one of the most widely studied
approaches (for reviews see Taylor & Harvey 2010, Trask
et al. 2011). There are many reasons why a group setting
may be a better way of healing sexual trauma. Treatment
groups create a safe and structured environment where each
woman can experience being heard and believed in a sup-
portive community of her peers. Group members may
choose themes that they consider relevant, often including
dealing with anger, self-esteem, sexuality, family-of-origin
issues, assertiveness, relationships, spirituality, perpetrators
and confrontation (Westbury & Tuttly 1999). A group for-
mat lessens the feelings of stigma, isolation and shame that
frequently follow sexual victimisation (Feiring et al. 1996,
Talbot 1996). In addition, a group setting provides partici-
pants with greater opportunities to observe and learn from
one another, especially for the acquisition of new skills.
In this study, we report the results of a group psychother-
apy experience conducted with Turkish women with a his-
tory of sexual abuse. We had two aims before conducting
this work. The first aim was to treat the psychiatric symp-
toms and psychological difficulties of survivors of sexual
trauma using group psychotherapy and also to find possible
predictors for dropout and treatment outcome rates. Sec-
ond, we aimed to find which therapeutic factors of group
psychotherapy would most help the group members. In
addition to these aims, our exploratory goal in this study
was to observe similarities and differences with regard to
responses to sexual trauma-related issues and the group
therapy setting between Turkish women and women from
other countries reported in the literature, because culture
may have an important impact on ways of responding to
and coping with trauma (Bryant-Davis et al. 2009).
Methods
Subjects
Group members (n = 47) were selected from among women
with history of a sexual abuse who applied for psychiatric
outpatient or inpatient treatment at the Psychiatry Depart-
ment of Gazi University Hospital or were staying at one of
the domestic violence shelter houses in Ankara and/or were
private practice patients of two of the authors. Some partic-
ipants learned of the groups by word of mouth. All of the
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
3250 Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258
A Sayın et al.
women were interviewed before inclusion in this study by
one of the authors (A.S.). During this screening interview,
detailed oral information about the purpose and process of
this study was given, and a written informed consent form
was signed by all participants. Then, information about
their socio-demographic characteristics, previous psychiatric
treatment and sexual abuse history was obtained through a
semi-structured interview. The exclusion criteria included
being younger than 16 years of age, having a psychotic dis-
order, active alcohol or substance dependence, mental retar-
dation, severe suicidal thoughts and not signing the written
informed consent form.
The mean age of the participants was 31�74 (minimum
20, maximum 50, standard deviation 7�32). The majority
of them were single (n = 21, 44�7%), had an education
level above 12 years (n = 27, 57�4%), had a job (n = 23,
48�9%), were born in a big city (n = 25, 53�2%), had lived
mostly in a big city during their lives (n = 32, 68�1%) and
were living with family at the time of therapy (n = 33,
70�2%).
A minority 19�1% (n = 9) of the participants had never
received any kind of psychiatric or psychological treatment
before. Among those who had received treatment before,
40�4% (n = 19) had been treated with psychotropic medi-
cation, 38�3% (n = 18) had been treated with both medi-
cation and psychotherapy, and 1 had received only
psychotherapy. A total of 65�9% (n = 31) were still using
psychotropic medicine, 17�0% (n = 8) had been hospita-
lised once in their lives in a psychiatric inpatient clinic,
and 6�4% (n = 3) had been hospitalised more than once.
A total of 51�1% (n = 24) had attempted suicide in the
past. After the screening interview, it was concluded that
23�4% (n = 11) did not have any current psychiatric diag-
nosis. The most common diagnosis was major depression
(n = 20, 42�5%), followed by borderline personality disor-
der (n = 11, 23�4%) and post-traumatic stress disorder
(n = 6, 12�7%). Other psychiatric diagnoses were panic
disorder, eating disorders, vaginismus, social phobia,
obsessive-compulsive disorder and conduct disorder.
According to their sexual abuse history, the majority of
these women were children when their sexual trauma
occurred (n = 19, 40�4%), the most common perpetrators
were first-degree family members (n = 14, 29�8%) and
husbands/lovers (n = 14, 29�8%), most of these women
were raped (n = 28, 80�9%), and most of them were trau-
matised more than once by the same perpetrator (n = 30,
63�8%). Revictimisation had occurred for 40�4% (n = 19)
of the women (‘re-victimisation’ was defined as at least
one additional incident of sexual abuse in both childhood
and adulthood, refer Wyatt et al. 1992). A total of
25�5% of them (n = 12) had never talked about their sex-
ual assault to anyone before this therapy and had not
received professional help after the assault (n = 37,
78�7%).
Instruments
After obtaining the information discussed above, the Ham-
ilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D), Hamilton Anxiety
Rating Scale (HAM-A), Clinician Administered Post-trau-
matic Stress Disorder Scale (CAPS), Dissociative Experi-
ences Scale (DES) and Childhood Trauma Questionnaire
(CTQ-28) were administered. All of the instruments
throughout the study were administered by one of the
authors (A.S.), who has 10 years of experience in clinical
psychiatry and is familiar with the scales. Some of the
scales are self-report scales.
The Hamilton Depression Rating Scale
This is a clinician-applied scale with 17 questions,
developed by Max Hamilton (Hamilton 1960). Scores from
8–15 show mild, from 16–28 points show moderate, and
above 29 show severe depression. The Turkish form’s valid-
ity and reliability had been previously established (Akdemir
et al. 1996), with a test–retest reliability coefficient of 0�85
and Cronbach’s coefficient of 0�75.
The Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale
This is a clinician-applied five-point Likert-type scale with
14 questions (Hamilton 1959). It includes both psychologi-
cal and bodily symptoms of anxiety. The Turkish form’s
validity and reliability had been previously established
(Yazıcı et al. 1998), with a test–retest coefficient of 0�72
and Cronbach’s coefficient of 0�94.
The Clinician Administered Post-traumatic Stress
Disorder Scale
This is a 17-item scale for the assessment of current and
lifetime PTSD symptoms (Blake et al. 1995). The 17
symptoms cluster into three subscales: CAPS-R for re-
experiencing, CAPS-A for avoidance/numbing and CAPS-H
for hyperarousal. A subject is considered ‘positive’ for life-
time symptoms if he/she endorses the symptoms within a
certain amount of time after the traumatic event. A sub-
ject is considered ‘positive’ for current symptoms if he/she
still has these symptoms. The Turkish version of CAPS
has a Cronbach’s alpha of 0�91 for the whole scale, 0�78
for re-experiencing symptoms, 0�78 for avoidance/numbing
symptoms and 0�82 for hyperarousal symptoms (Aker
et al. 1999).
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258 3251
Adolescent and female sexuality Group psychotherapy of sexual abuse
The Dissociative Experiences Scale
This is a 28-question self-report scale. For each question,
participants are asked to rate a sentence related to dissocia-
tive symptoms on a scale between 0–100 (Bernstein & Put-
man 1986). The Turkish version has a Cronbach’s alpha of
0�97 and a test–retest correlation of 0�77, and the cut-off
point for a Turkish population is 30 (Yargıc� et al. 1995).
This scale was used only at screening in this study, because
it evaluates dissociative symptoms experienced within a
lifetime.
The Childhood Trauma Questionnaire
This is a five-point Likert-type self-report questionnaire
developed by Bernstein et al. (1994). It evaluates childhood
trauma history according to five dimensions: physical
neglect, physical abuse, emotional neglect, emotional abuse
and sexual abuse. The Turkish version has a Cronbach’s
alpha of 0�96 (Aslan & Alparslan 1999).
The Group Therapeutic Factors Questionnaire
For this study, Yalom’s 60-item therapeutic factor question-
naire was used (Yalom 1975). The questionnaire contains
60 items, 5 describing each of the 12 factors (a brief
description of each therapeutic factor can be found in Table
3). Patients are asked to consider each of the 12 items (pre-
sented on five separate pages) and rank each item from the
least helpful (1) to the most helpful (12). This questionnaire
had previously been translated into Turkish (transl Tang€or
& Karac�am 1999).
The HAM-D, HAM-A and CAPS were given four times
during the study: at entry (baseline), after the sixth session,
after the final (12th) session and at a follow-up session
(six months after the therapy ended). The DES and CTQ-
28 were given at entry. The Group Therapeutic Factors
Questionnaire was given after the final therapy session.
Group psychotherapy method
An eclectic method of group psychotherapy was applied
that had been developed by one of the authors (L.W.)
and used by her for 20 years. This method uses a combi-
nation of well-validated psychotherapy methods (such as
cognitive behavioural therapy, interpersonal therapy, nar-
rative therapy, psychoeducation, expressive techniques) for
trauma-focused therapies (for a review, see Taylor &
Harvey 2010). It includes 12 90-minute sessions, and each
session has an agenda. Some of the topics from the first
three sessions include group rules, safety issues and effects
of sexual trauma on psychological and interpersonal
well-being. A psychotherapeutic approach for common
psychiatric and psychological responses to trauma was
applied, and some relaxation techniques were introduced.
In sessions 4–7, participants were asked to tell their sex-
ual abuse stories, in an order determined by themselves.
In sessions 8–10, some common themes raised in the
members’ stories were discussed more deeply in the
group. Examples of some of these themes include issues
about self-respect, self-esteem, sexuality, relationships with
men, with family, anger, etc. The 11th and 12th sessions
were closure sessions during which members summarised
their group process, gave feedback to each other and
talked about their future plans. An additional follow-up
session was provided six months after finishing the 12th
session. All of the sessions were conducted by all of the
authors (one therapist and two co-therapists), who have
10–20 years of group psychotherapy experience as thera-
pists and co-therapists.
Statistical analysis
All data were statistically analysed using the SPSS, version
15.0 package (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) programme.
For statistical analysis of the differences between the mean
scores of the HAM-A, HAM-D and CAPS during the entire
group process and on follow-up, the general linear model
for repeated measures, chi–square test, and Friedman’s and
Wilcoxon’s analysis with Bonferroni correction were used.
The Mann–Whitney U-test, chi–square test, and Pearson’s
correlation and linear regression analyses were used to
find the variables that had a significant effect on the thera-
peutic factors, treatment efficacy and dropout rates. A
p-value < 0�05 was considered statistically significant.
Results
Treatment adherence
A total of five groups were completed, each consisting of
8–10 members. There were no statistically significant
differences between these five cohorts with regard to socio-
demographic variables, sexual trauma history, scores from
whole scales, and dropout and efficacy rates. Among the
47 women who applied for this study, 32 (68�1%) finished
the whole group process. Seven (14�9%) never attended
group after being screened, and these subjects were
excluded from further statistical analysis. The remaining
eight (17�0%) subjects will be referred as ‘dropouts’,
because these women attended at least one session but did
not finish the whole process. To determine the predictors
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
3252 Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258
A Sayın et al.
for these dropouts, chi-square and linear regression analy-
ses were conducted, and we found that being younger than
33 years of age (median) [odds ratio (OR) = �0�459; 95%
confidence interval (CI) �0�571 to �0�140, p = 0�002] and
a DES score lower than 30 (no dissociation)
(OR = �0�405; 95% CI �0�547 to �0�101, p = 0�006)
predicted a higher dropout rate (Table 1).
Treatment response
The results for the remaining 32 subjects’ mean scores on
the scales given throughout the study, as well as a com-
parison of their scores at the baseline (screening), after
the 6th and the 12th sessions and at the six-month fol-
low-up are shown in Table 2. These analyses were made
Table 1 Regression analysis for treatment adherence
Attendance n (%)
v² p OR Sig (reg)
95% confidence interval
Finished Dropped out Lower bound Upper bound
Age
� 33 years 15 (65�2) 8 (34�8) 7�391 0�007 �0�459 0�002 �0�571 �0�140
>33 years 17 (100) 0
DES
� 27 18 (72) 7 (28) 4�778 0�036 �0�405 0�006 �0�547 �0�101
>27 14 (100) 0
DES, Dissociative Experiences Scale.
Table 2 Mean scores of Hamilton Depression Rating scale (HAM-D), Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A), Clinician Administered
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Scale-Total (CAPS-T) (subtitles re-experiencing symptoms CAPS-R, avoidance symptoms CAPS-A, hypera-
rousal symptoms CAPS-H), Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) and Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ-28) at screening (1), after 6th
session (2), after 12th session (3) and six-month follow-up (4)
Scale Mean SD v² p* Z p†
HAM-D1 22�45 11�1 48�363 0 HAM-D1/2 �4�889 0
HAM-D2 14�64 9�89 HAM-D2/3 �4�725 0
HAM-D3 8�55 8�13 HAM-D3/4 �2�445 0�002
HAM-D4 5�55 4�95
HAM-A1 15�45 8�9 41�533 0 HAM-A1/2 �4�62 0
HAM-A2 9�82 9�17 HAM-A2/3 �4�173 0
HAM-A3 5�09 6�61 HAM-A3/4 �0�683 0�082
HAM-A4 4�32 2�44
CAPS-T1 42�27 19�68 42�823 0 CAPS-T1/2 �4�42 0
CAPS-T2 26�64 25�95 CAPS-T2/3 �3�503 0
CAPS-T3 13�77 24�21 CAPS-T3/4 �0�669 0�167
CAPS-T4 9�32 11�84
CAPS-R1 10 9�25 6�596 0�086 CAPS-R1/2 �1�255 0�069
CAPS-R2 9�55 11�32 CAPS-R2/3 �1�725 0�028
CAPS-R3 6�36 10�48 CAPS-R3/4 �1�074 0�094
CAPS-R4 3�95 7
CAPS-A1 20�55 10�25 40�026 0 CAPS-A1/2 �4�341 0
CAPS-A2 10�18 11�57 CAPS-A2/3 �3�481 0
CAPS-A3 3�82 10�63 CAPS-A3/4 �1�153 0�083
CAPS-A4 0�91 2�52
CAPS-H1 11�73 9�42 17�112 0�001 CAPS-H1/2 �3�23 0
CAPS-H2 6�91 8�22 CAPS-H2/3 �3�126 0
CAPS-H3 3�59 6�26 CAPS-H3/4 �0�306 0�253
CAPS-H4 4�45 7�75
*Friedman’s test.
†Wilcoxon’s test with Bonferroni correction.
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258 3253
Adolescent and female sexuality Group psychotherapy of sexual abuse
in two steps. First, a nonparametric analysis for
K-repeated samples (Friedman) was performed to analyse
the changes in scores from baseline to follow-up. Second,
to find exactly when a significant decrease in scores
had occurred, nonparametric analysis for 2-Related
Samples (Wilcoxon’s test with Bonferroni correction) was
performed. According to these results, the significant
decline in HAM-D (mean = 22�45 versus 14�64,
p < 0�001), HAM-A (15�45/9�82, p < 0�001), CAPS-total
(CAPS-T) (42�27/26�64, p < 0�001), CAPS-A (20�55/10�18,
p < 0�001) and CAPS-H (11�73/6�91, p < 0�001) began
during the first six sessions. This tendency to decline
continued through the follow-up session, and the statisti-
cal significance was lost between 12th session and the
six-month follow-up, except for the HAM-D (8�55/5�55,
p = 0�002). CAPS-H scores increased between the 12th
session and the six-month follow-up session without a
statistically significant difference. For the CAPS-R scores,
a significant decline began between the 6th and the 12th
sessions (9�55/6�36, p = 0�028), and this significance was
lost between the 12th session and the six-month follow-
up session.
As shown in Table 2, the standard deviations were
high, which suggests that there were some extreme cases
that did not respond to therapy. To find predictors for
treatment outcome, we divided the subjects into two
groups with regard to treatment efficacy. For those sub-
jects whose scores from all scales decreased more than
50% between baseline and the end of therapy (12th ses-
sion), the treatment could be considered ‘efficacious’
(n = 25, 78�1%). Chi-square and linear regression analy-
ses were performed to find the predictors for treatment
outcome. The only significant result was for DES scores:
for the majority of those who had a DES score of <30
(no dissociation), the treatment was efficacious (n = 17,
94�4%), while for the 42�9% (n = 6) of the women who
had a DES score above 30, the treatment was not effica-
cious (OR = �0�448; 95% CI = �0�651 to �0�095,
p = 0�010).
Understanding the therapeutic factors
Table 3 shows the results of the Group Therapeutic Factors
Questionnaire. Existential factors (mean � standard devia-
tion, 41�40 � 12�39), universality (37�56 � 7�11) and cohe-
siveness (37�24 � 8�32) were rated as the most helpful
therapeutic factors in the group process, while identification
(23�56 � 7�90), interpersonal learning – input (24�64 �
8�70) and interpersonal learning – output (25�80 � 7�91)
were rated as the least helpful factors.
Discussion
We were able to fulfil the three aims we had for this study.
The first aim was to help these women to heal from their
trauma-related psychiatric and psychological difficulties.
Most of these women had severe psychiatric symptoms at
screening, including depression, anxiety, post-traumatic
stress disorder and dissociation. Their symptom patterns
were similar to those previously reported for comparable
populations (for a review, see Barker-Collo & Read 2003).
As shown in Table 2, most of the group members had sig-
nificantly less depressive, anxiety and post-traumatic stress
disorder symptoms, both immediately after and six months
after this therapy. These results show that group psycho-
therapy was effective for this sample, a result that is in
accord with previous literature (for reviews see Taylor &
Harvey 2010, Trask et al. 2011). A significant decline in
symptoms began as early as the 6th session for depression
and anxiety, along with their overall symptoms of PTSD,
primarily avoidance and hyperarousal symptoms. The only
exception was the re-experiencing of symptoms of PTSD,
which showed a small decline at the 6th session evaluation,
but this decline became significant at the 12th session
evaluation. We think that the possible reason for this ‘late’
decline in re-experiencing symptoms is that from sessions
4–7, participants were asked to tell their sexual abuse sto-
ries. Telling their trauma stories in front of other members,
as well as listening to the other members’ stories, may have
caused a temporary increase in some participants’ re-experi-
encing symptoms. But as group members became ‘de-sensi-
tised’ to the telling and hearing of stories, their symptoms
begin to decline.
We found that this treatment was efficacious for 78�1%
of these women. This rate is similar to the rates reported in
the literature, because a large meta-analysis of 26 studies
Table 3 Mean scores of Group Therapeutic Factors Questionnaire
Therapeutic factors Mean SD
Altruism 29�24 10�12
Cohesiveness 37�24 8�32
Universality 37�56 7�11
Interpersonal learning – input 24�64 8�70
Interpersonal learning – output 25�80 7�91
Guidance 26�00 8�15
Catharsis 30�48 7�14
Identification 23�56 7�90
Family re-enactment 34�32 11�59
Self-understanding 42�32 11�35
Hope instillation 36�40 9�61
Existential factors 41�40 12�39
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
3254 Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258
A Sayın et al.
including 44 treatment conditions for psychotherapy of
PTSD reports that, of patients who completed treatment,
67% no longer meet the criteria for PTSD (Bradley et al.
2005). What is interesting is that none of the variables had
a significant effect on treatment efficacy. The only signifi-
cant result was for dissociation at baseline; the treatment
was significantly more effective for members who had a
lower score for dissociation at baseline, as compared to
those who had higher dissociation scores. This finding is in
contradiction to results from previous studies which have
shown that more severe dissociative symptoms at baseline
are associated with the same or even better outcomes for
psychological treatments for PTSD (Lynch et al. 2008,
Hagenaars et al. 2010). Dropout rates were also similar to
the rates reported in the literature (Bradley et al. 2005). A
younger age and having lower levels of dissociation at
baseline predicted a higher dropout rate. Dissociation is a
complex symptom and may have a significant negative
effect on individual’s daily life and functioning. This may
have created a higher level of motivation for treatment,
which is reflected in a lower dropout rate.
Our second aim was to find how different characteristics
of group members affected their understanding of the group
process, especially the therapeutic factors of group psycho-
therapy. In this sample, group members reported that exis-
tential factors, universality and cohesiveness were the most
helpful therapeutic factors. This finding supports the ratio-
nale for using group psychotherapy in trauma treatment,
because, as previously stated, a safe and structured group
environment helps members to feel supported, heard and
believed and lessens their feelings of stigma, isolation and
shame (Feiring et al. 1996, Talbot 1996, Westbury &
Tuttly 1999).
We have two hypotheses to explain why group members
chose these particular factors. First, we believe that the set-
ting had a significant effect upon ‘cohesiveness’. The groups
were run in the private office of one of the authors. Mem-
bers were permitted to come half an hour before the group
started. Many group members chose to do this, and they
often brought food with them, drank coffee and talked with
each other. This somewhat resembles ‘women’s day’ in
Turkish culture, social events where women come together
regularly to eat, drink and talk with each other. We believe
these ‘before-the-group’ talks encouraged the occurrence of
cohesiveness. In addition, most of the group members con-
tinued to meet regularly after the whole group process
ended. Some of them even began to organise community
education programmes. Second, we think that ‘culture’ had
an important effect on ‘universality’. The most common
perpetrators for our sample were first-degree family
members (29�8%) and husbands/lovers (29�8%). Incest is a
major social taboo in Turkey, and usually, both the victims
and their families would rather ‘keep it a secret’ instead of
talking about such abuse. Incest may even result in murders
within families. Sexual abuse by husbands/lovers is some-
times not considered illegal in Turkey. For these reasons,
women in Turkey who are sexually abused by first-degree
relatives and/or husbands usually do not share their trauma
story with anyone else. Shame and fear may be the main
emotions for women who choose to remain silent after this
kind of sexual abuse. Understanding this helps us to under-
stand why these women might choose ‘universality’ as one
of the most helpful therapeutic factors. Hearing other
women’s stories and realising that they are not the only
people who have had to face such an event may have less-
ened these women’s feelings of isolation, and this may have
helped them through their healing process. This is also
closely related to the ‘existential factors’; these women may
have learned that ‘life is not always fair’ by listening to
other women’s stories. Existential well-being, defined as
having a sense of being unique, having a purpose in life
and finding meaning in a ‘hostile and hurtful’ world, has
previously been shown to be an important factor in recov-
ery from sexually abusive experiences (Feinauer 2003, Shaw
et al. 2005). Rating existential factors as one of the most
helpful therapeutic factors in group psychotherapy suggests
that group participants were able to make meaning in their
lives that has become more significant to them than their
sexually abusive experiences. They were able to see them-
selves as having survived a difficult and destructive experi-
ence resulting from another person’s disturbance. Once
freed from self-blame, these women could believe they have
an opportunity to change their lives and could put their
traumatic experiences into the past. This finding is beauti-
fully reflected in a comment made by one of our group
members: ‘I used to carry my life on my shoulders like a
burden. Now I am ready to flow with it’.
We had a third exploratory goal in this study and that
was to observe similarities and differences with regard to
responses to sexual trauma–related issues and the group
therapy setting between Turkish women and women from
other countries reported in the literature. One of our thera-
pists (L.W.) had run groups with sexually abused women in
the USA for 20 years, so she had a chance to compare these
similarities and differences. Another paper compares obser-
vations of group patterns for sexual abuse survivors in
these two countries with significantly different cultures.
But, to summarise, we report that although groups from
these two countries were overwhelmingly similar in many
ways, differences emerged in expression and containment of
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258 3255
Adolescent and female sexuality Group psychotherapy of sexual abuse
effect, cohesion and relatedness, perceptions of reaction to
authority and power, and external/internal locus of control
(L. Welkin, S. Candansayar and A. Sayın, unpublished
results). Religiously and culturally determined contrasts in
perception, attitude, communication and behaviour may
have significant effects on patients’ perceptions about thera-
peutic factors (Salvendy 1999). Turkish culture is often
described as a culture of relatedness or collectivism where
interpersonal relations are of central importance, in con-
trast to a culture of separateness and individualism where
personal autonomy is more highly valued (Ka�gıtc�ıbas�ı
1994). People in more relational cultures are thought to
seek high levels of relatedness and moderate levels of
autonomy to maintain their mental health, while people in
more individualistic cultures seek high levels of autonomy
and moderate levels of relatedness (Sato 2001). Universality
and cohesiveness are, we believe, therapeutic factors that
can be closely related to ‘relatedness’. In a study conducted
with Turkish psychiatric inpatients, it was reported that
patients rated existential factors, instillation of hope and
universality as the most helpful group therapeutic factors
(Sayin et al. 2008). To our knowledge, there is no other
study about therapeutic factors in sexual abuse survivor’s
groups, but it would be interesting to compare our results
with results from more individualistic countries.
Although our results are promising, this study has some
major limitations. First, our sample is small and is not
representative of all Turkish sexual abuse victims, because it
includes only women living in the capital city of Turkey. Sec-
ond, this is not a controlled study, and we did not compare
the therapeutic effect of group psychotherapy to any other
form of treatment or a waiting list. Third, all the treatment
outcome ratings were performed by one of the therapists in
the group and that may have created a bias.
Conclusion
We believe that this study, despite its limitations, provides
further support for the effectiveness of group psychotherapy
for women from different cultural backgrounds with a his-
tory of childhood sexual abuse. Group psychotherapy was
significantly effective for reducing levels of depression, anxi-
ety and PTSD symptoms in this sample of women. Dissoci-
ation had a significant effect on both treatment outcome
and treatment adherence. Further studies conducted with
sexually abused women from different countries would
surely enrich the literature and help us to understand better
how to help victims of sexual abuse.
Relevance to clinical practice
Mental health treatment for sexually abused women should
be planned with careful consideration of both local cultural
differences and universal human fundamentals. Group psy-
chotherapy can be a preferable treatment for these women,
because it especially helps to reduce feelings of stigma,
isolation and shame.
Contributions
Study design: AS, SC, LW; data collection and analysis: AS
and manuscript preparation: AS, SC, LW.
References
Agirtan CA, Akar T, Akbas S, Akdur R,
Aydin C, Aytar G, Ayyildiz S, Baskan
S, Belgemen T, Bezirci O, Beyazova U,
Beyaztas FY, Buken B, Buken E,
Camurdan AD, Can D, Canbaz S,
Cant€urk G, Ceyhan M, Coskun A, Celik
A, Cetin FC, Coskun AG, Da�gc�inar A,
Dallar Y, Demirel B, Demirogullari B,
Derman O, Dilli D, Ersahin Y, Es�iyok
B, Evinc G, Gencer O, G€okler B, Hanci
H, Iseri E, Isir AB, Isiten N, Kale G,
Karadag F, Kanbur N, Kilic� B, Kultur
E, Kurtay D, Kuruoglu A, Miral S,
Odabasi AB, Oral R, Orhon FS, Ozbes-
ler C, Ozdemir DF, Ozkok MS, Ozmert
E, Oztop DB, Ozy€urek H, Pasli F,
Peksen Y, Polat O, Sahin F, Rifat Sahin
A, Salacin S, Suskan E, Tander B, Tekin
D, Teksam O, Tiras U, Tomak Y,
Tumer AR, Turla A, Ulukol B, Uslu R,
Tas FV, Vatandas N, Velipasaoglu S,
Yagmur F, Ya�gmurlu A, Yalcin S,
Yavuz S & Yurdakok K; Contributing
Multidisciplinary Teams (MDT)
(2009) Establishment of interdisciplin-
ary child protection teams in Turkey
2002–2006: Identifying the strongest
link can make a difference. Child Abuse
and Neglect 33, 247–255.
Akdemir A, €Orsel S, Da�g _I, T€urkc�apar H,
_Is�can N & €Ozbay H (1996) Hamil-
ton depresyon derecelendirme €olc�e�gi
(HDD €O)’nin gec�erlilik, g€uvenilirli�gi
ve klinikte kullanımı. 3P Dergisi 4,
251–259 [in Turkish].
Aker AT, €Ozeren M, Bas�o�glu M, Kapt-
ano�glu C, Erol A & Buran B (1999)
Klinisyen tarafından uygulanan trav-
ma sonrası stress bozuklu�gu €olc�e�gi
(TSSB- €O) gec�erlilik ve g€uvenilirlik
c�alıs�ması. Turkish Journal of Psychia-
try 10, 286–293 [in Turkish].
Alikasifoglu M, Erginoz E, Ercan O,
Albayrak-Kaymak D, Uysal O & Ilter
O (2006) Sexual abuse among female
high school students in Istanbul,
Turkey. Child Abuse and Neglect 27,
1161–1178.
Aras Z, Aksel S & Alkaynak S (1996) Sex-
ual behavior in adolescents. Psychol-
ogy Seminars 11, 89–94.
Arin C (2001) Femicide in the name of
honor in Turkey. Violence against
Women 7, 821–825.
Aslan SH & Alparslan ZN (1999) C�ocukluk
€Orselenme Yas�antıları €Olc�e�gi’nin bir
€universite €o�grencisi €ornekleminde gec�er-
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
3256 Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258
A Sayın et al.
lilik, g€uvenilirlik ve fakt€or yapısı. Turk-
ish Journal of Psychiatry 10, 275–285
[inTurkish].
Barker-Collo S & Read J (2003) Models of
response to childhood sexual abuse.
Trauma, Violence, and Abuse 4, 95–
111.
Bernstein EM & Putman PW (1986) Devel-
opment, reliability and validity of a
dissociation scale. Journal of Nervous
and Mental Disorders 174, 727–735.
Bernstein D, Fink L, Handelsman L, Foote
J, Lovejoy M, Wenzel K, Sapareto E
& Ruggiero J (1994) Initial reliability
and validity of a new retrospective
measure of child abuse and neglect.
American Journal of Psychiatry 151,
1132–1136.
Blake DD, Weathers FW, Nagy LM,
Kaloupek DG, Gusman FD, Charney
DS & Keane TM (1995) The develop-
ment of a clinician administered PTSD
scale. Journal of Trauma and Stress 8,
75–90.
Bradley R, Greene J, Russ E, Dutra L &
Westen D (2005) A multidimensional
meta-analysis of psychotherapy for
PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry
162, 214–227.
Bryant-Davis T, Chung H & Tillman S
(2009) From the margins to the center:
Ethnic minority women and the mental
health effects of sexual assault. Trauma,
Violence, and Abuse 10, 330–357.
Elliott DM, Mok DS & Briere J (2004)
Adult sexual assault: Prevalence,
symptomatology, and sex differences
in the general population. Journal of
Trauma and Stress 17, 203–211.
Feinauer L (2003) Existential well-being as
a factor in the adjustment of adults sexu-
ally abused as children. The American
Journal of Family Therapy 31, 201–213.
Feiring C, Taska L & Lewis M (1996) A
process model for understanding adap-
tation to sexual abuse: the role of
shame in defining stigmatization. Child
Abuse and Neglect 20, 767–782.
Fledner Y (2000) “Honor” murders- why
the perps get off easily. Middle East
Quarterly 6, 41–50.
Hagenaars MA, vanMinnen A & Hoog-
dwin KAL (2010) The impact of dis-
sociation and depression on the
efficacy of prolonged exposure treat-
ment for PTSD. Behavioral Research
and Therapy 48, 19–27.
Hamilton M (1959) The assessment of anxi-
ety states by rating. British Journal of
Medical Psychology 32, 50–55.
Hamilton M (1960) A rating scale for
depression. Journal of Neurology,
Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 23,
56–65.
Heim C, Shugart M, Craighead WE &
Nemeroff CB (2010) Neurobiological
and psychiatric consequences of child
abuse and neglect. Developmental
Psychobiology 52, 671–690.
Ka�gıtc�ıbas�ı C� (1994) A critical appraisal of
individualism-collectivism: Toward a
new formulation. In Individualism and
Collectivism: Theory, Method and Appli-
cations (Kim U & Hakhoe HS eds).
Sage, Beverly Hills, CA, pp. 52–65.
Lynch SM, Forman E, Mendelsohn M &
Herman J (2008) Attending to dissoci-
ation: assessing change in dissociation
and predicting treatment outcome.
Journal of Trauma and Dissociation
9, 301–319.
Pereda N, Guilera G, Forms M & Gomez-
Benito J (2009) The prevalence of
child sexual abuse in community and
student samples: a meta-analysis. Clin-
ical Psychology Reviews 29, 328–338.
Salvendy JT (1999) Ethnocultural consider-
ations in group psychotherapy. Interna-
tional Journal of Group Psychotherapy
49, 429–464.
Sato T (2001) Autonomy and relatedness
in psychopathology and treatment: A
cross-cultural formation. Genetics,
Social, and General Psychology
Monograms 127, 89–127.
Sayin A, Karslioglu EH, Surgit A, S�ahin S,
Arslan T & Candansayar S (2008) Per-
ceptions of Turkish psychiatric
inpatients about therapeutic factors of
group psychotherapy. International
Journal of Group Psychotherapy 58,
253–263.
Sever A & Yurdakul G (2001) Culture of
honor, culture of change: a feminist
analysis of honor killings in rural
Turkey. Violence against Women 7,
964–998.
Shaw A, Joseph S & Linley PA (2005)
Religion, spirituality, and posttrau-
matic growth: a systemic review.
Mental Health, Religion & Culture 8,
1–11.
Talbot NL (1996) Women sexually abused
as children: the centrality of shame
issues and treatment implications.
Psychotherapy 33, 11–18.
Tang€or A & Karac�am €O (transl) (1999)
Grup Psikoterapisinin Teori ve Prat-
i�gi. Kabalcı Yayınevi, Kadikoy, _Istan-
bul [in Turkish].
Taylor JE & Harvey ST (2010) A meta-
analysis of the effects of psychother-
apy with adults sexually abused in
childhood. Clinical Psychology
Reviews 30, 749–767.
Trask EV, Walsh K & DiLillo D (2011)
Treatment effects for common out-
comes of child sexual abuse: A current
meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent
Behavior 16, 6–19.
Westbury E & Tuttly LM (1999) The effi-
cacy of group treatment for survivors
of childhood abuse. Child Abuse and
Neglect 23, 31–44.
Wyatt GE, Guthrie D & Notgrass C
(1992) Differential effects of
women’s child sexual abuse and sub-
sequent revictimization. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology
60, 167–173.
Yalom ID (1975) The Theory and Practice
of Group Psychotherapy. Basic Books,
New York, NY.
Yargıc� L_I, Tutkun H & S�ar V (1995) The
reliability and validity of the Turkish
Version of Dissociative Experiences
Scale. Dissociation 8, 10–12.
Yazıcı MK, Demir B, Tanrıverdi N, Kar-
ao�glu E & Yolac� P (1998) Hamilton
Anksiyete De�gerlendirme €Olc�e�gi,
de�gerlendiriciler arası g€uvenilirlik ve
gec�erlik c�alıs�ması. Turkish Journal of
Psychiatry 9, 114–117 [in Turkish].
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258 3257
Adolescent and female sexuality Group psychotherapy of sexual abuse
The Journal of Clinical Nursing (JCN) is an international, peer reviewed journal that aims to promote a high standard of
clinically related scholarship which supports the practice and discipline of nursing.
For further information and full author guidelines, please visit JCN on the Wiley Online Library website: http://
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jocn
Reasons to submit your paper to JCN:
High-impact forum: one of the world’s most cited nursing journals, with an impact factor of 1�316 – ranked 21/101
(Nursing (Social Science)) and 25/103 Nursing (Science) in the 2012 Journal Citation Reports� (Thomson Reuters, 2012).
One of the most read nursing journals in the world: over 1�9 million full text accesses in 2011 and accessible in over
8000 libraries worldwide (including over 3500 in developing countries with free or low cost access).
Early View: fully citable online publication ahead of inclusion in an issue.
Fast and easy online submission: online submission at http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/jcnur.
Positive publishing experience: rapid double-blind peer review with constructive feedback.
Online Open: the option to make your article freely and openly accessible to non-subscribers upon publication in Wiley
Online Library, as well as the option to deposit the article in your preferred archive.
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
3258 Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258
A Sayın et al.
ADOLESCENT AND FEMALE SEXUALITY
Group psychotherapy in women with a history of sexual abuse: what
did they find helpful?
Aslıhan Sayın, Selc�uk Candansayar and Leyla Welkin
Aims and objectives. To define the effects of group psychotherapy in women with a history of sexual abuse, to find possible
predictors for dropout and treatment outcome rates and to find which therapeutic factors of group psychotherapy are per-
ceived by group members to be most helpful.
Background. Sexual abuse of women is a global concern and causes many psychiatric and psychological sequelae. Group
psychotherapy is one of the preferred treatment modalities.
Design. Prospective cohort study.
Methods. Forty-seven women with a history of childhood and/or adulthood sexual abuse were recruited for weekly 12-session
group psychotherapy. Subjects were given the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale, the Cli-
nician Administered Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Scale, the Dissociative Experiences Scale, the Childhood Trauma Ques-
tionnaire and the Group Therapeutic Factors Questionnaire. Re-evaluations were made after the 6th and 12th session and
also at a six-month follow-
up session.
Results. Group psychotherapy significantly reduced participants’ levels of depression (screening/12th session mean scores,
22�45/11�10), anxiety (15�45/4�32) and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (42�27/9�32), and this decline became
statistically significant at the 6th session and tended to persist at the six-month follow-up. Higher levels of dissociative
symptoms at baseline were associated with less response to treatment, but higher levels of attendance at group sessions.
Group members rated existential factors (41�40 � 12�39), cohesiveness (37�42 � 8�32) and universalism (37�56 � 7�11) as
the most helpful therapeutic factors.
Conclusion. Group psychotherapy was significantly effective in reducing levels of depression, anxiety and posttraumatic
stress disorder symptoms in this sample of women. Dissociation had a significant effect on both treatment outcome and
treatment adherence. For this sample of women, group psychotherapy was most helpful for reducing feelings of stigma, iso-
lation and shame.
Relevance to clinical practice. Group psychotherapy can be used as a preferred treatment method for women from different
cultural backgrounds with a history of sexual abuse.
Key words: dissociation, group psychotherapy, post-traumatic stress disorder, sexual abuse, therapeutic factors, women
Accepted for publication: 31 October 2012
Introduction
Sexual abuse is a universal problem, and victims are most
often women. A meta-analysis/ of prevalence of child sexual
abuse in adults using 65 articles from 22 countries reported
that 7�9% of men and 19�7% of women had experienced
sexual abuse prior to the age of 18 (Pereda et al. 2009). In
a random sample of the general population in USA, sexual
assault during adulthood was reported by 22% of women
and 3�8% of men, and risk factors for adult sexual assault
Authors: Aslıhan Sayın, MD, Associate Professor, Psychiatry Dep-
artment, Gazi University Hospital, Ankara; Selc�uk Candansayar,
MD, Professor, Psychiatry Department, Gazi University Hospital,
Ankara; Leyla Welkin, PhD, Independent Scholar, Pomegranate
Connection Program, Ankara, Turkey
Correspondence: Aslıhan Sayın, Associate Professor, Psychiatry
Department, Gazi University Hospital, Bes�evler, Ankara 06500,
Turkey. Telephone: +90 532 5840438.
E-mail: aslihansayin@gmail.com
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258, doi: 10.1111/jocn.12168 3249
include younger age, being female, having been divorced,
sexual abuse in childhood and physical assault during
adulthood (Elliott et al. 2004). In Turkey, sexual abuse,
especially intrafamilial sexual abuse, continues to be vastly
under-reported to authorities due to social taboos (Agirtan
et al. 2009). The few published studies report a sexual
abuse prevalence of 11–37% in the adolescent population
(Aras et al. 1996, Alikasifoglu et al. 2006).
Childhood sexual abuse has been associated with long-
term psychiatric problems in adult life, including dissocia-
tive and post-traumatic stress disorders, depression, anxiety,
phobia, substance abuse, eating disorders, suicidal ideation
and behaviours, self-harm behaviours, problems in interper-
sonal and intimate relationships, impaired self-esteem, and
impaired identity formation (for a review, see Heim et al.
2010). Although these psychiatric problems are universal
among sexual abuse victims from all over the world,
women’s coping styles and the treatment for these problems
by mental health providers vary greatly between different
countries and cultures. For example, both legal and tradi-
tional approaches to sexual abuse victims in Turkey may
consider the marriage of an abuser and the victim as a
‘solution’. In some Middle Eastern countries and most com-
monly among Muslim groups like Turkey, family honour is
closely tied to the sexuality of its female members. Accord-
ing to these traditional values, young women are expected
to be virgins when they marry to assure their purity and
moral propriety. In this traditional system, women are not
primarily considered as individuals, and one of their most
important roles is to embody the family’s good reputation
and honour (Arin 2001, Sever & Yurdakul 2001). These
beliefs can be so strong that some families are prepared to
sacrifice the lives of female members in order to restore
family honour. After a rape, society perceives the violated
woman not as a victim who needs protection, but as some-
one whose impurity has debased the family honour. Her
relatives may opt to undo the shame of this violation by
taking her life. But murder is not the only possible remedy.
An alternative to murdering her is to arrange a marriage
for her, preferably with the person who violated her honour
through rape. This procedure of imposing a ‘reparative’
marriage on a violated woman is believed to remedy her
perceived offence against her family. Based on this set of
beliefs, the practice was until very recently legally sanc-
tioned by the Turkish state and was considered to ‘protect
the girl from social stigma’. After such a forced marriage,
the criminal investigation was dropped, although a rapist
could still face criminal charges if he divorced his wife
within five years ‘without a legitimate reason’ (Fledner
2000). Despite changes in the laws, some courts continue
to follow these principles. These local/cultural approaches
may encourage more abuses of victims and may also have
an influence on mental health approaches.
Given that sexual abuse of women is common and has
lifelong psychological effects, efforts have been made to
find effective treatment methods for these women. Group
psychotherapy has been one of the most widely studied
approaches (for reviews see Taylor & Harvey 2010, Trask
et al. 2011). There are many reasons why a group setting
may be a better way of healing sexual trauma. Treatment
groups create a safe and structured environment where each
woman can experience being heard and believed in a sup-
portive community of her peers. Group members may
choose themes that they consider relevant, often including
dealing with anger, self-esteem, sexuality, family-of-origin
issues, assertiveness, relationships, spirituality, perpetrators
and confrontation (Westbury & Tuttly 1999). A group for-
mat lessens the feelings of stigma, isolation and shame that
frequently follow sexual victimisation (Feiring et al. 1996,
Talbot 1996). In addition, a group setting provides partici-
pants with greater opportunities to observe and learn from
one another, especially for the acquisition of new skills.
In this study, we report the results of a group psychother-
apy experience conducted with Turkish women with a his-
tory of sexual abuse. We had two aims before conducting
this work. The first aim was to treat the psychiatric symp-
toms and psychological difficulties of survivors of sexual
trauma using group psychotherapy and also to find possible
predictors for dropout and treatment outcome rates. Sec-
ond, we aimed to find which therapeutic factors of group
psychotherapy would most help the group members. In
addition to these aims, our exploratory goal in this study
was to observe similarities and differences with regard to
responses to sexual trauma-related issues and the group
therapy setting between Turkish women and women from
other countries reported in the literature, because culture
may have an important impact on ways of responding to
and coping with trauma (Bryant-Davis et al. 2009).
Methods
Subjects
Group members (n = 47) were selected from among women
with history of a sexual abuse who applied for psychiatric
outpatient or inpatient treatment at the Psychiatry Depart-
ment of Gazi University Hospital or were staying at one of
the domestic violence shelter houses in Ankara and/or were
private practice patients of two of the authors. Some partic-
ipants learned of the groups by word of mouth. All of the
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
3250 Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258
A Sayın et al.
women were interviewed before inclusion in this study by
one of the authors (A.S.). During this screening interview,
detailed oral information about the purpose and process of
this study was given, and a written informed consent form
was signed by all participants. Then, information about
their socio-demographic characteristics, previous psychiatric
treatment and sexual abuse history was obtained through a
semi-structured interview. The exclusion criteria included
being younger than 16 years of age, having a psychotic dis-
order, active alcohol or substance dependence, mental retar-
dation, severe suicidal thoughts and not signing the written
informed consent form.
The mean age of the participants was 31�74 (minimum
20, maximum 50, standard deviation 7�32). The majority
of them were single (n = 21, 44�7%), had an education
level above 12 years (n = 27, 57�4%), had a job (n = 23,
48�9%), were born in a big city (n = 25, 53�2%), had lived
mostly in a big city during their lives (n = 32, 68�1%) and
were living with family at the time of therapy (n = 33,
70�2%).
A minority 19�1% (n = 9) of the participants had never
received any kind of psychiatric or psychological treatment
before. Among those who had received treatment before,
40�4% (n = 19) had been treated with psychotropic medi-
cation, 38�3% (n = 18) had been treated with both medi-
cation and psychotherapy, and 1 had received only
psychotherapy. A total of 65�9% (n = 31) were still using
psychotropic medicine, 17�0% (n = 8) had been hospita-
lised once in their lives in a psychiatric inpatient clinic,
and 6�4% (n = 3) had been hospitalised more than once.
A total of 51�1% (n = 24) had attempted suicide in the
past. After the screening interview, it was concluded that
23�4% (n = 11) did not have any current psychiatric diag-
nosis. The most common diagnosis was major depression
(n = 20, 42�5%), followed by borderline personality disor-
der (n = 11, 23�4%) and post-traumatic stress disorder
(n = 6, 12�7%). Other psychiatric diagnoses were panic
disorder, eating disorders, vaginismus, social phobia,
obsessive-compulsive disorder and conduct disorder.
According to their sexual abuse history, the majority of
these women were children when their sexual trauma
occurred (n = 19, 40�4%), the most common perpetrators
were first-degree family members (n = 14, 29�8%) and
husbands/lovers (n = 14, 29�8%), most of these women
were raped (n = 28, 80�9%), and most of them were trau-
matised more than once by the same perpetrator (n = 30,
63�8%). Revictimisation had occurred for 40�4% (n = 19)
of the women (‘re-victimisation’ was defined as at least
one additional incident of sexual abuse in both childhood
and adulthood, refer Wyatt et al. 1992). A total of
25�5% of them (n = 12) had never talked about their sex-
ual assault to anyone before this therapy and had not
received professional help after the assault (n = 37,
78�7%).
Instruments
After obtaining the information discussed above, the Ham-
ilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D), Hamilton Anxiety
Rating Scale (HAM-A), Clinician Administered Post-trau-
matic Stress Disorder Scale (CAPS), Dissociative Experi-
ences Scale (DES) and Childhood Trauma Questionnaire
(CTQ-28) were administered. All of the instruments
throughout the study were administered by one of the
authors (A.S.), who has 10 years of experience in clinical
psychiatry and is familiar with the scales. Some of the
scales are self-report scales.
The Hamilton Depression Rating Scale
This is a clinician-applied scale with 17 questions,
developed by Max Hamilton (Hamilton 1960). Scores from
8–15 show mild, from 16–28 points show moderate, and
above 29 show severe depression. The Turkish form’s valid-
ity and reliability had been previously established (Akdemir
et al. 1996), with a test–retest reliability coefficient of 0�85
and Cronbach’s coefficient of 0�75.
The Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale
This is a clinician-applied five-point Likert-type scale with
14 questions (Hamilton 1959). It includes both psychologi-
cal and bodily symptoms of anxiety. The Turkish form’s
validity and reliability had been previously established
(Yazıcı et al. 1998), with a test–retest coefficient of 0�72
and Cronbach’s coefficient of 0�94.
The Clinician Administered Post-traumatic Stress
Disorder Scale
This is a 17-item scale for the assessment of current and
lifetime PTSD symptoms (Blake et al. 1995). The 17
symptoms cluster into three subscales: CAPS-R for re-
experiencing, CAPS-A for avoidance/numbing and CAPS-H
for hyperarousal. A subject is considered ‘positive’ for life-
time symptoms if he/she endorses the symptoms within a
certain amount of time after the traumatic event. A sub-
ject is considered ‘positive’ for current symptoms if he/she
still has these symptoms. The Turkish version of CAPS
has a Cronbach’s alpha of 0�91 for the whole scale, 0�78
for re-experiencing symptoms, 0�78 for avoidance/numbing
symptoms and 0�82 for hyperarousal symptoms (Aker
et al. 1999).
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258 3251
Adolescent and female sexuality Group psychotherapy of sexual abuse
The Dissociative Experiences Scale
This is a 28-question self-report scale. For each question,
participants are asked to rate a sentence related to dissocia-
tive symptoms on a scale between 0–100 (Bernstein & Put-
man 1986). The Turkish version has a Cronbach’s alpha of
0�97 and a test–retest correlation of 0�77, and the cut-off
point for a Turkish population is 30 (Yargıc� et al. 1995).
This scale was used only at screening in this study, because
it evaluates dissociative symptoms experienced within a
lifetime.
The Childhood Trauma Questionnaire
This is a five-point Likert-type self-report questionnaire
developed by Bernstein et al. (1994). It evaluates childhood
trauma history according to five dimensions: physical
neglect, physical abuse, emotional neglect, emotional abuse
and sexual abuse. The Turkish version has a Cronbach’s
alpha of 0�96 (Aslan & Alparslan 1999).
The Group Therapeutic Factors Questionnaire
For this study, Yalom’s 60-item therapeutic factor question-
naire was used (Yalom 1975). The questionnaire contains
60 items, 5 describing each of the 12 factors (a brief
description of each therapeutic factor can be found in Table
3). Patients are asked to consider each of the 12 items (pre-
sented on five separate pages) and rank each item from the
least helpful (1) to the most helpful (12). This questionnaire
had previously been translated into Turkish (transl Tang€or
& Karac�am 1999).
The HAM-D, HAM-A and CAPS were given four times
during the study: at entry (baseline), after the sixth session,
after the final (12th) session and at a follow-up session
(six months after the therapy ended). The DES and CTQ-
28 were given at entry. The Group Therapeutic Factors
Questionnaire was given after the final therapy session.
Group psychotherapy method
An eclectic method of group psychotherapy was applied
that had been developed by one of the authors (L.W.)
and used by her for 20 years. This method uses a combi-
nation of well-validated psychotherapy methods (such as
cognitive behavioural therapy, interpersonal therapy, nar-
rative therapy, psychoeducation, expressive techniques) for
trauma-focused therapies (for a review, see Taylor &
Harvey 2010). It includes 12 90-minute sessions, and each
session has an agenda. Some of the topics from the first
three sessions include group rules, safety issues and effects
of sexual trauma on psychological and interpersonal
well-being. A psychotherapeutic approach for common
psychiatric and psychological responses to trauma was
applied, and some relaxation techniques were introduced.
In sessions 4–7, participants were asked to tell their sex-
ual abuse stories, in an order determined by themselves.
In sessions 8–10, some common themes raised in the
members’ stories were discussed more deeply in the
group. Examples of some of these themes include issues
about self-respect, self-esteem, sexuality, relationships with
men, with family, anger, etc. The 11th and 12th sessions
were closure sessions during which members summarised
their group process, gave feedback to each other and
talked about their future plans. An additional follow-up
session was provided six months after finishing the 12th
session. All of the sessions were conducted by all of the
authors (one therapist and two co-therapists), who have
10–20 years of group psychotherapy experience as thera-
pists and co-therapists.
Statistical analysis
All data were statistically analysed using the SPSS, version
15.0 package (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) programme.
For statistical analysis of the differences between the mean
scores of the HAM-A, HAM-D and CAPS during the entire
group process and on follow-up, the general linear model
for repeated measures, chi–square test, and Friedman’s and
Wilcoxon’s analysis with Bonferroni correction were used.
The Mann–Whitney U-test, chi–square test, and Pearson’s
correlation and linear regression analyses were used to
find the variables that had a significant effect on the thera-
peutic factors, treatment efficacy and dropout rates. A
p-value < 0�05 was considered statistically significant.
Results
Treatment adherence
A total of five groups were completed, each consisting of
8–10 members. There were no statistically significant
differences between these five cohorts with regard to socio-
demographic variables, sexual trauma history, scores from
whole scales, and dropout and efficacy rates. Among the
47 women who applied for this study, 32 (68�1%) finished
the whole group process. Seven (14�9%) never attended
group after being screened, and these subjects were
excluded from further statistical analysis. The remaining
eight (17�0%) subjects will be referred as ‘dropouts’,
because these women attended at least one session but did
not finish the whole process. To determine the predictors
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
3252 Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258
A Sayın et al.
for these dropouts, chi-square and linear regression analy-
ses were conducted, and we found that being younger than
33 years of age (median) [odds ratio (OR) = �0�459; 95%
confidence interval (CI) �0�571 to �0�140, p = 0�002] and
a DES score lower than 30 (no dissociation)
(OR = �0�405; 95% CI �0�547 to �0�101, p = 0�006)
predicted a higher dropout rate (Table 1).
Treatment response
The results for the remaining 32 subjects’ mean scores on
the scales given throughout the study, as well as a com-
parison of their scores at the baseline (screening), after
the 6th and the 12th sessions and at the six-month fol-
low-up are shown in Table 2. These analyses were made
Table 1 Regression analysis for treatment adherence
Attendance n (%)
v² p OR Sig (reg)
95% confidence interval
Finished Dropped out Lower bound Upper bound
Age
� 33 years 15 (65�2) 8 (34�8) 7�391 0�007 �0�459 0�002 �0�571 �0�140
>33 years 17 (100) 0
DES
� 27 18 (72) 7 (28) 4�778 0�036 �0�405 0�006 �0�547 �0�101
>27 14 (100) 0
DES, Dissociative Experiences Scale.
Table 2 Mean scores of Hamilton Depression Rating scale (HAM-D), Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A), Clinician Administered
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Scale-Total (CAPS-T) (subtitles re-experiencing symptoms CAPS-R, avoidance symptoms CAPS-A, hypera-
rousal symptoms CAPS-H), Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) and Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ-28) at screening (1), after 6th
session (2), after 12th session (3) and six-month follow-up (4)
Scale Mean SD v² p* Z p†
HAM-D1 22�45 11�1 48�363 0 HAM-D1/2 �4�889 0
HAM-D2 14�64 9�89 HAM-D2/3 �4�725 0
HAM-D3 8�55 8�13 HAM-D3/4 �2�445 0�002
HAM-D4 5�55 4�95
HAM-A1 15�45 8�9 41�533 0 HAM-A1/2 �4�62 0
HAM-A2 9�82 9�17 HAM-A2/3 �4�173 0
HAM-A3 5�09 6�61 HAM-A3/4 �0�683 0�082
HAM-A4 4�32 2�44
CAPS-T1 42�27 19�68 42�823 0 CAPS-T1/2 �4�42 0
CAPS-T2 26�64 25�95 CAPS-T2/3 �3�503 0
CAPS-T3 13�77 24�21 CAPS-T3/4 �0�669 0�167
CAPS-T4 9�32 11�84
CAPS-R1 10 9�25 6�596 0�086 CAPS-R1/2 �1�255 0�069
CAPS-R2 9�55 11�32 CAPS-R2/3 �1�725 0�028
CAPS-R3 6�36 10�48 CAPS-R3/4 �1�074 0�094
CAPS-R4 3�95 7
CAPS-A1 20�55 10�25 40�026 0 CAPS-A1/2 �4�341 0
CAPS-A2 10�18 11�57 CAPS-A2/3 �3�481 0
CAPS-A3 3�82 10�63 CAPS-A3/4 �1�153 0�083
CAPS-A4 0�91 2�52
CAPS-H1 11�73 9�42 17�112 0�001 CAPS-H1/2 �3�23 0
CAPS-H2 6�91 8�22 CAPS-H2/3 �3�126 0
CAPS-H3 3�59 6�26 CAPS-H3/4 �0�306 0�253
CAPS-H4 4�45 7�75
*Friedman’s test.
†Wilcoxon’s test with Bonferroni correction.
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258 3253
Adolescent and female sexuality Group psychotherapy of sexual abuse
in two steps. First, a nonparametric analysis for
K-repeated samples (Friedman) was performed to analyse
the changes in scores from baseline to follow-up. Second,
to find exactly when a significant decrease in scores
had occurred, nonparametric analysis for 2-Related
Samples (Wilcoxon’s test with Bonferroni correction) was
performed. According to these results, the significant
decline in HAM-D (mean = 22�45 versus 14�64,
p < 0�001), HAM-A (15�45/9�82, p < 0�001), CAPS-total
(CAPS-T) (42�27/26�64, p < 0�001), CAPS-A (20�55/10�18,
p < 0�001) and CAPS-H (11�73/6�91, p < 0�001) began
during the first six sessions. This tendency to decline
continued through the follow-up session, and the statisti-
cal significance was lost between 12th session and the
six-month follow-up, except for the HAM-D (8�55/5�55,
p = 0�002). CAPS-H scores increased between the 12th
session and the six-month follow-up session without a
statistically significant difference. For the CAPS-R scores,
a significant decline began between the 6th and the 12th
sessions (9�55/6�36, p = 0�028), and this significance was
lost between the 12th session and the six-month follow-
up session.
As shown in Table 2, the standard deviations were
high, which suggests that there were some extreme cases
that did not respond to therapy. To find predictors for
treatment outcome, we divided the subjects into two
groups with regard to treatment efficacy. For those sub-
jects whose scores from all scales decreased more than
50% between baseline and the end of therapy (12th ses-
sion), the treatment could be considered ‘efficacious’
(n = 25, 78�1%). Chi-square and linear regression analy-
ses were performed to find the predictors for treatment
outcome. The only significant result was for DES scores:
for the majority of those who had a DES score of <30
(no dissociation), the treatment was efficacious (n = 17,
94�4%), while for the 42�9% (n = 6) of the women who
had a DES score above 30, the treatment was not effica-
cious (OR = �0�448; 95% CI = �0�651 to �0�095,
p = 0�010).
Understanding the therapeutic factors
Table 3 shows the results of the Group Therapeutic Factors
Questionnaire. Existential factors (mean � standard devia-
tion, 41�40 � 12�39), universality (37�56 � 7�11) and cohe-
siveness (37�24 � 8�32) were rated as the most helpful
therapeutic factors in the group process, while identification
(23�56 � 7�90), interpersonal learning – input (24�64 �
8�70) and interpersonal learning – output (25�80 � 7�91)
were rated as the least helpful factors.
Discussion
We were able to fulfil the three aims we had for this study.
The first aim was to help these women to heal from their
trauma-related psychiatric and psychological difficulties.
Most of these women had severe psychiatric symptoms at
screening, including depression, anxiety, post-traumatic
stress disorder and dissociation. Their symptom patterns
were similar to those previously reported for comparable
populations (for a review, see Barker-Collo & Read 2003).
As shown in Table 2, most of the group members had sig-
nificantly less depressive, anxiety and post-traumatic stress
disorder symptoms, both immediately after and six months
after this therapy. These results show that group psycho-
therapy was effective for this sample, a result that is in
accord with previous literature (for reviews see Taylor &
Harvey 2010, Trask et al. 2011). A significant decline in
symptoms began as early as the 6th session for depression
and anxiety, along with their overall symptoms of PTSD,
primarily avoidance and hyperarousal symptoms. The only
exception was the re-experiencing of symptoms of PTSD,
which showed a small decline at the 6th session evaluation,
but this decline became significant at the 12th session
evaluation. We think that the possible reason for this ‘late’
decline in re-experiencing symptoms is that from sessions
4–7, participants were asked to tell their sexual abuse sto-
ries. Telling their trauma stories in front of other members,
as well as listening to the other members’ stories, may have
caused a temporary increase in some participants’ re-experi-
encing symptoms. But as group members became ‘de-sensi-
tised’ to the telling and hearing of stories, their symptoms
begin to decline.
We found that this treatment was efficacious for 78�1%
of these women. This rate is similar to the rates reported in
the literature, because a large meta-analysis of 26 studies
Table 3 Mean scores of Group Therapeutic Factors Questionnaire
Therapeutic factors Mean SD
Altruism 29�24 10�12
Cohesiveness 37�24 8�32
Universality 37�56 7�11
Interpersonal learning – input 24�64 8�70
Interpersonal learning – output 25�80 7�91
Guidance 26�00 8�15
Catharsis 30�48 7�14
Identification 23�56 7�90
Family re-enactment 34�32 11�59
Self-understanding 42�32 11�35
Hope instillation 36�40 9�61
Existential factors 41�40 12�39
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
3254 Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258
A Sayın et al.
including 44 treatment conditions for psychotherapy of
PTSD reports that, of patients who completed treatment,
67% no longer meet the criteria for PTSD (Bradley et al.
2005). What is interesting is that none of the variables had
a significant effect on treatment efficacy. The only signifi-
cant result was for dissociation at baseline; the treatment
was significantly more effective for members who had a
lower score for dissociation at baseline, as compared to
those who had higher dissociation scores. This finding is in
contradiction to results from previous studies which have
shown that more severe dissociative symptoms at baseline
are associated with the same or even better outcomes for
psychological treatments for PTSD (Lynch et al. 2008,
Hagenaars et al. 2010). Dropout rates were also similar to
the rates reported in the literature (Bradley et al. 2005). A
younger age and having lower levels of dissociation at
baseline predicted a higher dropout rate. Dissociation is a
complex symptom and may have a significant negative
effect on individual’s daily life and functioning. This may
have created a higher level of motivation for treatment,
which is reflected in a lower dropout rate.
Our second aim was to find how different characteristics
of group members affected their understanding of the group
process, especially the therapeutic factors of group psycho-
therapy. In this sample, group members reported that exis-
tential factors, universality and cohesiveness were the most
helpful therapeutic factors. This finding supports the ratio-
nale for using group psychotherapy in trauma treatment,
because, as previously stated, a safe and structured group
environment helps members to feel supported, heard and
believed and lessens their feelings of stigma, isolation and
shame (Feiring et al. 1996, Talbot 1996, Westbury &
Tuttly 1999).
We have two hypotheses to explain why group members
chose these particular factors. First, we believe that the set-
ting had a significant effect upon ‘cohesiveness’. The groups
were run in the private office of one of the authors. Mem-
bers were permitted to come half an hour before the group
started. Many group members chose to do this, and they
often brought food with them, drank coffee and talked with
each other. This somewhat resembles ‘women’s day’ in
Turkish culture, social events where women come together
regularly to eat, drink and talk with each other. We believe
these ‘before-the-group’ talks encouraged the occurrence of
cohesiveness. In addition, most of the group members con-
tinued to meet regularly after the whole group process
ended. Some of them even began to organise community
education programmes. Second, we think that ‘culture’ had
an important effect on ‘universality’. The most common
perpetrators for our sample were first-degree family
members (29�8%) and husbands/lovers (29�8%). Incest is a
major social taboo in Turkey, and usually, both the victims
and their families would rather ‘keep it a secret’ instead of
talking about such abuse. Incest may even result in murders
within families. Sexual abuse by husbands/lovers is some-
times not considered illegal in Turkey. For these reasons,
women in Turkey who are sexually abused by first-degree
relatives and/or husbands usually do not share their trauma
story with anyone else. Shame and fear may be the main
emotions for women who choose to remain silent after this
kind of sexual abuse. Understanding this helps us to under-
stand why these women might choose ‘universality’ as one
of the most helpful therapeutic factors. Hearing other
women’s stories and realising that they are not the only
people who have had to face such an event may have less-
ened these women’s feelings of isolation, and this may have
helped them through their healing process. This is also
closely related to the ‘existential factors’; these women may
have learned that ‘life is not always fair’ by listening to
other women’s stories. Existential well-being, defined as
having a sense of being unique, having a purpose in life
and finding meaning in a ‘hostile and hurtful’ world, has
previously been shown to be an important factor in recov-
ery from sexually abusive experiences (Feinauer 2003, Shaw
et al. 2005). Rating existential factors as one of the most
helpful therapeutic factors in group psychotherapy suggests
that group participants were able to make meaning in their
lives that has become more significant to them than their
sexually abusive experiences. They were able to see them-
selves as having survived a difficult and destructive experi-
ence resulting from another person’s disturbance. Once
freed from self-blame, these women could believe they have
an opportunity to change their lives and could put their
traumatic experiences into the past. This finding is beauti-
fully reflected in a comment made by one of our group
members: ‘I used to carry my life on my shoulders like a
burden. Now I am ready to flow with it’.
We had a third exploratory goal in this study and that
was to observe similarities and differences with regard to
responses to sexual trauma–related issues and the group
therapy setting between Turkish women and women from
other countries reported in the literature. One of our thera-
pists (L.W.) had run groups with sexually abused women in
the USA for 20 years, so she had a chance to compare these
similarities and differences. Another paper compares obser-
vations of group patterns for sexual abuse survivors in
these two countries with significantly different cultures.
But, to summarise, we report that although groups from
these two countries were overwhelmingly similar in many
ways, differences emerged in expression and containment of
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258 3255
Adolescent and female sexuality Group psychotherapy of sexual abuse
effect, cohesion and relatedness, perceptions of reaction to
authority and power, and external/internal locus of control
(L. Welkin, S. Candansayar and A. Sayın, unpublished
results). Religiously and culturally determined contrasts in
perception, attitude, communication and behaviour may
have significant effects on patients’ perceptions about thera-
peutic factors (Salvendy 1999). Turkish culture is often
described as a culture of relatedness or collectivism where
interpersonal relations are of central importance, in con-
trast to a culture of separateness and individualism where
personal autonomy is more highly valued (Ka�gıtc�ıbas�ı
1994). People in more relational cultures are thought to
seek high levels of relatedness and moderate levels of
autonomy to maintain their mental health, while people in
more individualistic cultures seek high levels of autonomy
and moderate levels of relatedness (Sato 2001). Universality
and cohesiveness are, we believe, therapeutic factors that
can be closely related to ‘relatedness’. In a study conducted
with Turkish psychiatric inpatients, it was reported that
patients rated existential factors, instillation of hope and
universality as the most helpful group therapeutic factors
(Sayin et al. 2008). To our knowledge, there is no other
study about therapeutic factors in sexual abuse survivor’s
groups, but it would be interesting to compare our results
with results from more individualistic countries.
Although our results are promising, this study has some
major limitations. First, our sample is small and is not
representative of all Turkish sexual abuse victims, because it
includes only women living in the capital city of Turkey. Sec-
ond, this is not a controlled study, and we did not compare
the therapeutic effect of group psychotherapy to any other
form of treatment or a waiting list. Third, all the treatment
outcome ratings were performed by one of the therapists in
the group and that may have created a bias.
Conclusion
We believe that this study, despite its limitations, provides
further support for the effectiveness of group psychotherapy
for women from different cultural backgrounds with a his-
tory of childhood sexual abuse. Group psychotherapy was
significantly effective for reducing levels of depression, anxi-
ety and PTSD symptoms in this sample of women. Dissoci-
ation had a significant effect on both treatment outcome
and treatment adherence. Further studies conducted with
sexually abused women from different countries would
surely enrich the literature and help us to understand better
how to help victims of sexual abuse.
Relevance to clinical practice
Mental health treatment for sexually abused women should
be planned with careful consideration of both local cultural
differences and universal human fundamentals. Group psy-
chotherapy can be a preferable treatment for these women,
because it especially helps to reduce feelings of stigma,
isolation and shame.
Contributions
Study design: AS, SC, LW; data collection and analysis: AS
and manuscript preparation: AS, SC, LW.
References
Agirtan CA, Akar T, Akbas S, Akdur R,
Aydin C, Aytar G, Ayyildiz S, Baskan
S, Belgemen T, Bezirci O, Beyazova U,
Beyaztas FY, Buken B, Buken E,
Camurdan AD, Can D, Canbaz S,
Cant€urk G, Ceyhan M, Coskun A, Celik
A, Cetin FC, Coskun AG, Da�gc�inar A,
Dallar Y, Demirel B, Demirogullari B,
Derman O, Dilli D, Ersahin Y, Es�iyok
B, Evinc G, Gencer O, G€okler B, Hanci
H, Iseri E, Isir AB, Isiten N, Kale G,
Karadag F, Kanbur N, Kilic� B, Kultur
E, Kurtay D, Kuruoglu A, Miral S,
Odabasi AB, Oral R, Orhon FS, Ozbes-
ler C, Ozdemir DF, Ozkok MS, Ozmert
E, Oztop DB, Ozy€urek H, Pasli F,
Peksen Y, Polat O, Sahin F, Rifat Sahin
A, Salacin S, Suskan E, Tander B, Tekin
D, Teksam O, Tiras U, Tomak Y,
Tumer AR, Turla A, Ulukol B, Uslu R,
Tas FV, Vatandas N, Velipasaoglu S,
Yagmur F, Ya�gmurlu A, Yalcin S,
Yavuz S & Yurdakok K; Contributing
Multidisciplinary Teams (MDT)
(2009) Establishment of interdisciplin-
ary child protection teams in Turkey
2002–2006: Identifying the strongest
link can make a difference. Child Abuse
and Neglect 33, 247–255.
Akdemir A, €Orsel S, Da�g _I, T€urkc�apar H,
_Is�can N & €Ozbay H (1996) Hamil-
ton depresyon derecelendirme €olc�e�gi
(HDD €O)’nin gec�erlilik, g€uvenilirli�gi
ve klinikte kullanımı. 3P Dergisi 4,
251–259 [in Turkish].
Aker AT, €Ozeren M, Bas�o�glu M, Kapt-
ano�glu C, Erol A & Buran B (1999)
Klinisyen tarafından uygulanan trav-
ma sonrası stress bozuklu�gu €olc�e�gi
(TSSB- €O) gec�erlilik ve g€uvenilirlik
c�alıs�ması. Turkish Journal of Psychia-
try 10, 286–293 [in Turkish].
Alikasifoglu M, Erginoz E, Ercan O,
Albayrak-Kaymak D, Uysal O & Ilter
O (2006) Sexual abuse among female
high school students in Istanbul,
Turkey. Child Abuse and Neglect 27,
1161–1178.
Aras Z, Aksel S & Alkaynak S (1996) Sex-
ual behavior in adolescents. Psychol-
ogy Seminars 11, 89–94.
Arin C (2001) Femicide in the name of
honor in Turkey. Violence against
Women 7, 821–825.
Aslan SH & Alparslan ZN (1999) C�ocukluk
€Orselenme Yas�antıları €Olc�e�gi’nin bir
€universite €o�grencisi €ornekleminde gec�er-
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
3256 Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258
A Sayın et al.
lilik, g€uvenilirlik ve fakt€or yapısı. Turk-
ish Journal of Psychiatry 10, 275–285
[inTurkish].
Barker-Collo S & Read J (2003) Models of
response to childhood sexual abuse.
Trauma, Violence, and Abuse 4, 95–
111.
Bernstein EM & Putman PW (1986) Devel-
opment, reliability and validity of a
dissociation scale. Journal of Nervous
and Mental Disorders 174, 727–735.
Bernstein D, Fink L, Handelsman L, Foote
J, Lovejoy M, Wenzel K, Sapareto E
& Ruggiero J (1994) Initial reliability
and validity of a new retrospective
measure of child abuse and neglect.
American Journal of Psychiatry 151,
1132–1136.
Blake DD, Weathers FW, Nagy LM,
Kaloupek DG, Gusman FD, Charney
DS & Keane TM (1995) The develop-
ment of a clinician administered PTSD
scale. Journal of Trauma and Stress 8,
75–90.
Bradley R, Greene J, Russ E, Dutra L &
Westen D (2005) A multidimensional
meta-analysis of psychotherapy for
PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry
162, 214–227.
Bryant-Davis T, Chung H & Tillman S
(2009) From the margins to the center:
Ethnic minority women and the mental
health effects of sexual assault. Trauma,
Violence, and Abuse 10, 330–357.
Elliott DM, Mok DS & Briere J (2004)
Adult sexual assault: Prevalence,
symptomatology, and sex differences
in the general population. Journal of
Trauma and Stress 17, 203–211.
Feinauer L (2003) Existential well-being as
a factor in the adjustment of adults sexu-
ally abused as children. The American
Journal of Family Therapy 31, 201–213.
Feiring C, Taska L & Lewis M (1996) A
process model for understanding adap-
tation to sexual abuse: the role of
shame in defining stigmatization. Child
Abuse and Neglect 20, 767–782.
Fledner Y (2000) “Honor” murders- why
the perps get off easily. Middle East
Quarterly 6, 41–50.
Hagenaars MA, vanMinnen A & Hoog-
dwin KAL (2010) The impact of dis-
sociation and depression on the
efficacy of prolonged exposure treat-
ment for PTSD. Behavioral Research
and Therapy 48, 19–27.
Hamilton M (1959) The assessment of anxi-
ety states by rating. British Journal of
Medical Psychology 32, 50–55.
Hamilton M (1960) A rating scale for
depression. Journal of Neurology,
Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 23,
56–65.
Heim C, Shugart M, Craighead WE &
Nemeroff CB (2010) Neurobiological
and psychiatric consequences of child
abuse and neglect. Developmental
Psychobiology 52, 671–690.
Ka�gıtc�ıbas�ı C� (1994) A critical appraisal of
individualism-collectivism: Toward a
new formulation. In Individualism and
Collectivism: Theory, Method and Appli-
cations (Kim U & Hakhoe HS eds).
Sage, Beverly Hills, CA, pp. 52–65.
Lynch SM, Forman E, Mendelsohn M &
Herman J (2008) Attending to dissoci-
ation: assessing change in dissociation
and predicting treatment outcome.
Journal of Trauma and Dissociation
9, 301–319.
Pereda N, Guilera G, Forms M & Gomez-
Benito J (2009) The prevalence of
child sexual abuse in community and
student samples: a meta-analysis. Clin-
ical Psychology Reviews 29, 328–338.
Salvendy JT (1999) Ethnocultural consider-
ations in group psychotherapy. Interna-
tional Journal of Group Psychotherapy
49, 429–464.
Sato T (2001) Autonomy and relatedness
in psychopathology and treatment: A
cross-cultural formation. Genetics,
Social, and General Psychology
Monograms 127, 89–127.
Sayin A, Karslioglu EH, Surgit A, S�ahin S,
Arslan T & Candansayar S (2008) Per-
ceptions of Turkish psychiatric
inpatients about therapeutic factors of
group psychotherapy. International
Journal of Group Psychotherapy 58,
253–263.
Sever A & Yurdakul G (2001) Culture of
honor, culture of change: a feminist
analysis of honor killings in rural
Turkey. Violence against Women 7,
964–998.
Shaw A, Joseph S & Linley PA (2005)
Religion, spirituality, and posttrau-
matic growth: a systemic review.
Mental Health, Religion & Culture 8,
1–11.
Talbot NL (1996) Women sexually abused
as children: the centrality of shame
issues and treatment implications.
Psychotherapy 33, 11–18.
Tang€or A & Karac�am €O (transl) (1999)
Grup Psikoterapisinin Teori ve Prat-
i�gi. Kabalcı Yayınevi, Kadikoy, _Istan-
bul [in Turkish].
Taylor JE & Harvey ST (2010) A meta-
analysis of the effects of psychother-
apy with adults sexually abused in
childhood. Clinical Psychology
Reviews 30, 749–767.
Trask EV, Walsh K & DiLillo D (2011)
Treatment effects for common out-
comes of child sexual abuse: A current
meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent
Behavior 16, 6–19.
Westbury E & Tuttly LM (1999) The effi-
cacy of group treatment for survivors
of childhood abuse. Child Abuse and
Neglect 23, 31–44.
Wyatt GE, Guthrie D & Notgrass C
(1992) Differential effects of
women’s child sexual abuse and sub-
sequent revictimization. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology
60, 167–173.
Yalom ID (1975) The Theory and Practice
of Group Psychotherapy. Basic Books,
New York, NY.
Yargıc� L_I, Tutkun H & S�ar V (1995) The
reliability and validity of the Turkish
Version of Dissociative Experiences
Scale. Dissociation 8, 10–12.
Yazıcı MK, Demir B, Tanrıverdi N, Kar-
ao�glu E & Yolac� P (1998) Hamilton
Anksiyete De�gerlendirme €Olc�e�gi,
de�gerlendiriciler arası g€uvenilirlik ve
gec�erlik c�alıs�ması. Turkish Journal of
Psychiatry 9, 114–117 [in Turkish].
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258 3257
Adolescent and female sexuality Group psychotherapy of sexual abuse
The Journal of Clinical Nursing (JCN) is an international, peer reviewed journal that aims to promote a high standard of
clinically related scholarship which supports the practice and discipline of nursing.
For further information and full author guidelines, please visit JCN on the Wiley Online Library website: http://
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jocn
Reasons to submit your paper to JCN:
High-impact forum: one of the world’s most cited nursing journals, with an impact factor of 1�316 – ranked 21/101
(Nursing (Social Science)) and 25/103 Nursing (Science) in the 2012 Journal Citation Reports� (Thomson Reuters, 2012).
One of the most read nursing journals in the world: over 1�9 million full text accesses in 2011 and accessible in over
8000 libraries worldwide (including over 3500 in developing countries with free or low cost access).
Early View: fully citable online publication ahead of inclusion in an issue.
Fast and easy online submission: online submission at http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/jcnur.
Positive publishing experience: rapid double-blind peer review with constructive feedback.
Online Open: the option to make your article freely and openly accessible to non-subscribers upon publication in Wiley
Online Library, as well as the option to deposit the article in your preferred archive.
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
3258 Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 3249–3258
A Sayın et al.
Essay Writing Service Features
Our Experience
No matter how complex your assignment is, we can find the right professional for your specific task. Achiever Papers is an essay writing company that hires only the smartest minds to help you with your projects. Our expertise allows us to provide students with high-quality academic writing, editing & proofreading services.
Free Features
Free revision policy
$10Free bibliography & reference
$8Free title page
$8Free formatting
$8How Our Dissertation Writing Service Works
First, you will need to complete an order form. It's not difficult but, if anything is unclear, you may always chat with us so that we can guide you through it. On the order form, you will need to include some basic information concerning your order: subject, topic, number of pages, etc. We also encourage our clients to upload any relevant information or sources that will help.
Complete the order form
Once we have all the information and instructions that we need, we select the most suitable writer for your assignment. While everything seems to be clear, the writer, who has complete knowledge of the subject, may need clarification from you. It is at that point that you would receive a call or email from us.
Writer’s assignment
As soon as the writer has finished, it will be delivered both to the website and to your email address so that you will not miss it. If your deadline is close at hand, we will place a call to you to make sure that you receive the paper on time.
Completing the order and download