Discussion post
Most organizations around the world today use the team as the primary work unit. Much research has been dedicated to teams, with more recent research focused on virtual teams.
Additionally, within SIOP there are jobs for doing research as an I/O Psychologist, and even research awards for dissertation work.
Read Chapters 1, 4, and 5 of the dissertation, then:
Identify the problem the dissertation addressed.
List at least one idea from the dissertation that could be useful to you when consulting for a team or working on a team.
LEADERS’ EXPERIENCES OF MOVING TEAMS TO THE VIRTUAL WORK
SETTING IN UNEXPECTED SITUATIONS
by
Ian Trammell
ANTONIO SANTONASTASI, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair
STEVEN LINNVILLE, PhD, Committee Member
RICKY FENWICK, PhD, Committee Member
Jody Neuman-Aamlie, EdD Dean
School of Social and Behavioral Sciences
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University
May 2024
© Ian Trammell, 2024
Abstract
The research topic for this study is the experience of leaders as they move teams from the inperson to the virtual setting in unexpected situations, such as a pandemic. This qualitative
grounded theory study will explore the lived experience during the time of this activity based on
Tuckman’s theory of group development. The most current literature refers to the need for more
study of the actual challenges and actions taken by leaders and virtual teams during COVID and
as a result. We know that there were many emergent challenges that leaders needed to confront
in order to keep businesses running. The study used semi-structured interviews with 10
participants. Participants needed to be located in the United States of America. They needed to
work with companies with more than 100 employees. They needed to be leaders with a job title
in the C-suite (ex. CEO, CFO, COO, CIO). They needed to be employed by a for-profit
company. The participant also needs to have had experience supervising staff in both in-person
and virtual work settings. Potential participants were excluded from the study if their company
has had contracts over the last 2 years with Veloce Group, LLC (owned wholly by the
researcher) in order to avoid any conflict of interest or bias. The data led to the theory that
emerged that when faced with an unexpected situation that compelled the participant to lead a
team from the in-person to the virtual work setting, they experienced stress and anxiety. During
the process of directing the transition, they faced a variety of obstacles. They believe the ideal
situation was to have a strong organizational culture that would allow them and the team to be
flexible enough to withstand the challenges.
Dedication
This project is dedicated in thanksgiving to my parents who instilled a deep love of
learning into me from my childhood. To my father, Webster, who taught me to begin and
persevere. To my mother, Janet, who sacrificed much so that I could have the finest education. I
am grateful and I love you.
I also dedicate this project to my family. To my children; Alexandra and her husband,
Ryan; Edwin and Sofia; and my grandchildren, Lucy and Maxim. You have given me the joy of
family life. Most especially, I dedicate this project to my wife, Camille, who has earned this
degree just as much as I. Thank you for your long and constant sacrifice. You are my biggest
cheerleader! To the love of my life, we did it!
AD MAJOREM DEI GLORIAM
FACTA NON VERBA
PROVIDENTIA DEI NOS PROVIDEBIT
iii
Acknowledgments
I gratefully acknowledge the support and contribution of my dissertation mentor, Dr.
Antonio Santonastasi. I would also like to thank my committee Dr. Steven Linville and Dr.
Ricky Fenwick, for their productive feedback throughout the implementation of my project plan
and the writing of my dissertation. I also acknowledge the professional support of all of my
colleagues since the beginning of my doctoral journey.
iv
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments …………………………………………………………………………………….. iv
List of Tables …………………………………………………………………………………………..viii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………………. 1
Background of the Study …………………………………………………………………………….. 1
Need for the Study ……………………………………………………………………………………… 6
Purpose of the Study …………………………………………………………………………………… 8
Significance of the Study…………………………………………………………………………… 11
Research Question ……………………………………………………………………………………. 12
Definition of Terms ………………………………………………………………………………….. 12
Research Design ………………………………………………………………………………………. 13
Assumptions and Limitations …………………………………………………………………….. 15
Assumptions ……………………………………………………………………………………… 15
Limitations ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 16
Organization of the Remainder of the Study ………………………………………………… 17
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ………………………………………………………………… 19
Methods of Searching ……………………………………………………………………………….. 19
Theoretical Orientation for the Study ………………………………………………………….. 20
Review of the Literature ……………………………………………………………………………. 23
Synthesis of the Research Findings …………………………………………………………….. 45
Critique of Previous Research Methods ………………………………………………………. 49
Summary…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 52
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY …………………………………………………………………………. 53
Purpose of the Study …………………………………………………………………………………. 53
Research Question ……………………………………………………………………………………. 54
Research Design ………………………………………………………………………………………. 54
v
Target Population and Sample……………………………………………………………………. 56
Population…………………………………………………………………………………………. 56
Sample ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 56
Procedures ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 58
Participant Selection …………………………………………………………………………… 58
Protection of Participants ……………………………………………………………………. 59
Data Collection ………………………………………………………………………………….. 61
Data Analysis ……………………………………………………………………………………. 62
Instruments ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 64
The Role of the Researcher …………………………………………………………………. 65
Guiding Interview Questions……………………………………………………………….. 65
Ethical Considerations ………………………………………………………………………………. 66
Summary…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 67
CHAPTER 4. PRESENTATION OF THE DATA ………………………………………………….. 69
Introduction: The Study and the Researcher ………………………………………………… 69
Description of the Sample …………………………………………………………………………. 71
Research Methodology Applied to the Data Analysis …………………………………… 73
Presentation of Data and Results of the Analysis ………………………………………….. 76
Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 125
CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS …………….. 126
Summary of the Results…………………………………………………………………………… 126
Discussion of the Results…………………………………………………………………………. 131
Conclusions Based on the Results …………………………………………………………….. 133
Comparison of Findings with Theoretical Framework and Previous Literature . 134
Interpretation of the Findings …………………………………………………………………… 136
Limitations …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 137
vi
Implications for Practice………………………………………………………………………….. 138
Recommendations for Further Research ……………………………………………………. 139
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 140
References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 142
vii
List of Tables
Table 1. Title and Industry, Gender, Number of Years, age, and Number of Employees in
the Company ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 71
Table 2. Initial Codes ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 82
Table 3. Focused Code, Description, and Participant Response ………………………………. 103
Table 4. Axial Code and Dimensional Range ………………………………………………………. 123
Table 5. Axial Code and Theoretical Code …………………………………………………………… 124
viii
ix
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Introduction
The research topic for this study was the experience of leaders as they move teams from
the in-person to the virtual setting in unexpected situations, such as a pandemic. This qualitative
grounded theory study explored the lived experience during the time of this activity based on
Tuckman’s theory of group development. The most current literature referred to the need for
more study of the actual challenges and actions taken by leaders and virtual teams during
COVID and as a result. We know that there were many emergent challenges that leaders needed
to confront in order to keep businesses running.
By providing a description of the lived experience of the process that leaders go through
that leads up to the rapid formation of teams in unexpected situations such as a pandemic, the
paper seeks to advance the research on this topic and provide some practical implications. The
goal of identifying those qualities that worked well and not so well for leaders in successfully
bringing the newly formed virtual team through Bruce Tuckman’s stages of group development
(Tuckman & Jensen, 2010) will advance the theory into virtual team formation and will perhaps
yield valuable information regarding actions that future leaders can apply to the rapid formation
of virtual teams
Background of the Study
The increased availability and use of information and communication technology (ICT)
permits individuals and organizations to work as a team even when individuals are not in the
1
same geographic setting. Technology now allows high levels of collaboration without being
present in the same physical location. Such dispersed teams may work all across the world on
single or multiple projects synchronously or even asynchronously. These teams may be formed
for short project commitments and then dispersed or maintained for long-term missions.
Therefore, remote work can be understood as a work setting outside of the traditional work
setting that enables face-to-face activity in one geographical location while using ICT (Grawitch,
2023).
The COVID pandemic forced a change from the in-person work setting to virtual work
settings. Statista, a global data and business survey firm, studied remote work trends in 2021.
They found that before the pandemic, less than 20% of people in the United States worked
remotely during a typical work week. Once the pandemic afflicted the population, that number
increased to 44%. Another 2021 poll from Gallup found that 90% of those workers polled
desired to maintain some form of remote work. Another poll produced by Owl Labs, a business
service company dedicated to video conferencing, in 2021 found that 33% of those polled
reported that if they could not work remotely after the pandemic, they might even quit their jobs
(Grawitch, 2023).
In the past, remote work was typically voluntary. The pandemic acted as a forcing
function that continues to produce new challenges. Nearly overnight, the United States imposed
restrictions to address public health concerns. These included using face masks, lockdowns,
travel restrictions, and social distancing rules (Toscano & Zappala, 2020). This abrupt change
had negative effects all across the world. In many cases, the industry had a reactive approach to
continuing business.
2
In order to reach and maintain performance levels of team development, team members
experience a series of benefits and challenges as they take on the mode of work. Technology
enables team members to communicate, build, and sustain social networks among the team.
Therefore, individual team members gain greater flexibility in balancing personal and
professional obligations. The proper use of technology can be linked to greater work-life
balance, positive work-related performance, and positive work attitudes (Torres et al., 2023).
Companies also reduce the need to maintain real estate where employees are expected to work in
the same physical setting. The need for long distance travel is also greatly reduced.
There are also some general challenges. For instance, it becomes more difficult to
manage the completion of complex tasks. The technology being used by a team may be
insufficient for its needs, or members may not be sufficiently trained for its effective
employment. In 2014, a worldwide study of 3000 managers found that employees working on
virtual teams had issues regarding trust, decision-making, making their opinions heard, and
dealing with conflict (RW3 Culture Wizard, 2014). In other words, the transition from in-person
to virtual work settings has not been smooth. Instead, teams face a rocky road littered with
obstacles to navigate.
Leaders have also been expected to navigate unknown challenges by drawing on their
past experiences. Those that perform these leadership roles are both formal leaders recognized in
the organizational structures and informal leaders who emerge to take on responsibilities in the
group (Carte, 2006). Leadership in the virtual context produces additional specialization beyond
what in-person leadership responsibilities entail. This may include making a structure less
hierarchical and discovering new methodologies to make opportunities for employees to develop
trust and form relationships within the virtual team. Additionally, leaders must be concerned for
3
the well-being of team members when they are not seeing them face-to-face on a daily basis. The
leader must also find ways to keep team members informed and on mission (Contreras, 2020).
The study, by Torres et al. (2023), concluded that most recommendations to advise
virtual teams are based on research conducted before the COVID pandemic. This may lead to a
lack of appreciation of the depth of the challenges that confronted organizations dealing with the
move to remote work. Many of the rapid changes that took place as a result of the pandemic are
now predicted to be a permanent feature of work (Lund et al., 2020). While some leaders may
not believe this is for the best, the research demonstrates that a large number of employees desire
the virtual work setting as an option (Taylor et al., 2021). For all of these reasons, I believe that
understanding the experience of leaders guiding their teams from the traditional in-person setting
to remote work will bear rich fruit in guiding future leaders to learn from past mistakes and apply
best practices.
The research literature about the problem is helpful for defining and identifying the issue
of the experience of leaders guiding their teams from the traditional in-person setting to remote
work. However, the most current literature refers to the need for more study of the actual
challenges and actions taken by leaders and virtual teams during and as a result of COVID. We
know that there were many emergent challenges that leaders needed to confront in order to keep
businesses running. Chief among these was the ability to keep employees on task and work as a
team even when the work setting was abruptly changed.
I am particularly interested in researching this phenomenon because I own an
organizational consulting firm focused on team formation. I encounter organizations daily that
have been affected, to varying degrees, by the pandemic and the challenges for work it brought.
Many leaders and team members continue to ask questions and raise concerns about the best way
4
to handle challenges that result from helping a team to reach the performing stage. I would like
to produce research on the topic that results in helping leaders to go from being reactive in the
way that they approach this challenge to being prepared and better equipped to anticipate
challenges and plan for smooth transitions. I believe that by reducing the constant practice of
putting out fires and instead laying out a good plan for communication and implementation, the
ease by which a team will reach the performing stage will increase. This can be applied to
forming new virtual teams or onboarding new team members to existing teams. This research
will provide a significant contribution to the work being done on virtual team formation since
there is such a gap in the literature.
The general theories used to understand this phenomenon were Tuckman’s theory of
group development, the role of leadership in the virtual setting, and the role of trust in teams.
These distinct theories are all necessary when studying this particular topic (Choi, 2019). Bruce
Tuckman’s stages of group development (Tuckman & Jensen, 2010) served as a theoretical
framework through which the data was analyzed, explained, and then generalized. It has been
used as a theoretical framework in previous research studies as well (Kamalusin et al., 2022),
(Rojas, 2021), (Kiweewa et al., 2018) and (Bonebright, 2010).
The impact of emergent leadership in the effectiveness of a group is another theoretical
framework offered by Hoch and Dulebohn (2017). Some of the successful behaviors of such
leaders include mentoring, asserting intervention when necessary, and communicating in a
consistent, detailed, and timely manner. Several studies (Tyran et al. 2003), (Carte et al., 2006);
and (Ocker et al., 2011) have indicated the participation of a strong leader resulted in a high
performing and successful virtual team.
5
Finally, the role of trust in the formation and performance of teams, and in particular
virtual teams will be used. In the Bisbe et al. study (2017), the researchers found that in the
virtual setting, the presence of interpersonal trust among team members led to more consistent
communication, positive leadership, higher esprit de corps, and more flexibility when dealing
with the technical environment. They also found that trust had a positive impact on the
maintenance of social interaction, even when interacting in a virtual setting,
This study provided a description of the lived experience of leaders as they move teams
from the in-person to the virtual setting in unexpected situations, such as a pandemic. The data
gained from the interviews of participants who have experienced this phenomenon will provide
much-needed insights. The COVID pandemic produced a unique situation at a particular time in
history that affected personal and professional lives. This moment in history, after the restrictions
related to stopping the spread of COVID have been lifted, provides the right time for reflection
on how it was experienced. The goal is for the analysis and conclusions of this study to provide
cautionary tales and best practices for other leaders to apply to the movement of teams from the
in-person to the virtual setting in unexpected situations. Many more potential areas of research
will arise from the data presented. I hope that organizations will be able to better develop
strategies to transition to work or improve work in the virtual setting as a result of this study.
Need for the Study
Based on the literature (Tuckman et al., 2010), there is a gap with regard to the
experience of leaders as they move a team from the in-person setting to the virtual setting. This is
especially true because there is plenty of literature regarding virtual teams and the role of
leadership before and after team formation but nothing regarding the experience of the leader in
the midst of the transition (Efimov et al., 2022). There is a need for this study to address that gap.
6
The foundational research (Bekiogellari, 2020; Bouziri et al., 2020; Das & Kumar,
2011;Dastmalchia, 2020; Bekiogellari, 2020; Parks, 2020) on the topic of virtual teams is
plentiful. The literature points to the positive impact of collaboration once it has been established
(Choi, 2019). However, collaboration does not just happen naturally. It is the intentional
formation of interdependent relationships to create outcomes (Driskell, 2018).
The research literature on the rapid formation of virtual organizational teams indicates
that we know groups form along a set of stages identified by Bruce Tuckman (Tuckman &
Jensen, 2010) or variations thereof. The number of teams working virtually has increased
dramatically in the last year due to the COVID pandemic from 3% to more than 40% (Feitosa &
Salas, 2020). We also know that the role of the leader in establishing the necessary trust among
members of the team is challenging but necessary (Dastmalchia, 2020).
Trust, as a central concept, is the key. It is a “positive assumption about the motives and
intentions of another party” (McEvily et al., 2003, p. 93). It permits participants to perform more
efficiently without the need to protect themselves from others (McEvily et al., 2003). “Relying
on others is difficult when there is uncertainty about their intention, motives, and competencies”
(McEvily et al., 2003, p. 93). Trust is formed systematically through guidance, not automatically
(Choi, 2019). This is challenging enough in person but made even more so when taking place
virtually (Feitosa & Salas, 2020). We do not know the process leaders found to be successful as
they established and led virtual teams in unexpected situations, such as the recent pandemic. The
study needs to better understand the process that leaders experience that leads to the development
of these teams.
The articles all referred to the importance of trust in relationship building between people
and organizations. Partnership requires a structured approach (Feitosa & Salas, 2020). Step-by7
step methodologies are transferrable and can be replicated between projects. (Daclin, et al.,
2016) Das and Kumar (2011) study four distinct approaches to interpartner negotiation strategies
in the creation of alliances. These also confirm the acceptance of trust as a major driver in
collaboration methodologies.
The study by Gilson et al. (2015) indicates that the planning and the study of strategy in
the formation of virtual teams have received little attention. The study specifically cites the need
to study the process of transition. It specifically asks what foundation and leadership action is
needed in the creation of a virtual team. This period of transition presents a unique area of study.
The gap exists in examining what has worked for leaders moving their teams through Tuckman’s
stages and establishing trust in a virtual team environment rapidly during an unexpected situation
such as a pandemic.
Purpose of the Study
This study aimed to examine the process that leaders go through that guides the rapid
formation of virtual organizational teams in unexpected situations, such as a pandemic. There is
a need to explore the experience of these leaders as they transitioned the teams under their
influence. This study addressed the literature gap concerning the experience of leaders as they
move a team from the in-person setting to the virtual setting. It identified those qualities that
worked well for leaders in successfully bringing the newly formed virtual team through Bruce
Tuckman’s stages of group development (Tuckman & Jensen, 2010). The description of the
group life cycle in Tuckman’s theory was separated into two areas. These include interpersonal
tasks and task activity. This was developed into a model incorporating four stages. These are
called “forming, storming, norming and performing.” Adjourning was added later.
8
The forming is the stage in which the group is assembled. Members look to the formal
leader for direction. At this stage, conflict is avoided in favor of acceptance. Members may feel a
mix of excitement, apprehension, and uncertainty. In order to advance to the next stage, members
must release the fear of threatening topics and the possibility of conflict (Tuckman & Jensen,
2010).
In the storming stage, the group focuses on organizing tasks and processes. This stage
often results in interpersonal conflict. It is dominated by leadership control and the enforcement
of structures. Team members may feel defensive, confused, or feel power struggles during this
stage. The greatest need at this stage is effective listening and the establishment of roles and
codes of conduct. In order to advance to the next stage, members must move from the test and
prove approach to interaction marked by problem-solving behavior (Tuckman & Jensen, 2010).
The norming stage witnesses the group developing cohesion and greater shared
leadership. Team members learn the need to trust each other. Processes are accepted, and conflict
resolution skills have been developed. Team interaction and creativity are high. Collaboration
begins to happen here. In order to advance to the next stage, members must adapt to each other
(Tuckman & Jensen, 2010).
When the team reaches the performing stage, the interaction is marked by
interdependence, flexibility, and collaboration. The team members become highly productive on
a personal and professional level. The exchange of feedback and dialogue are major features at
this stage, and a general sense of satisfaction is achieved (Tuckman & Jensen, 2010).
In the final stage, known as adjourning, some or all team members are ready to leave.
This causes significant changes to the team dynamic. It will continue to perform, but members
9
need time to manage their feelings of loss as the transition occurs. It demonstrates a reversal
from giving up control to inclusion on the team (Tuckman & Jensen, 2010).
The successful formation of virtual teams has been a timely topic since the onset of the
COVID pandemic. Many organizations have been forced to adopt virtual teams in order to
survive (Feitosa & Salas, 2020). However, just because these teams have been created does not
mean that they are functioning well (Bouziri et al., 2020). This study explored the experience of
leaders who have transitioned a team from an in-person to a virtual setting in hopes of building
on Tuckman’s theory of group development.
The formation of teams has moved from the realm of social psychology to I-O
psychology with the understanding of the relevance of individuals interacting with one another
and how this dynamic affects the organization (Driskell et al., 2018). Trust is a key factor
impacted by coordination and cooperation in a virtual team setting (Choi, 2019). In return, trust
manifests itself in a positive way through collaboration and team effectiveness.
Collaboration is defined as the work within a team that provides organizational success in
operations related to the mission that requires the interdependence of group members (Cha et al.,
2015). It is recognized as a necessary component of that which makes organizations effective
(Cha et al., 2015). The use of technology when workers are not present in the workplace adds an
additional dimension to team interaction (Choi, 2019). The study will provide data on what ways
trust can be formed rapidly among team members when something sudden and unexpected, such
as the COVID pandemic, occurs. The study of rapid virtual team formation successes will
significantly impact future organizational efforts.
10
Significance of the Study
The study aimed to examine the process that leaders go through that leads to the rapid
formation of teams in unexpected situations such as a pandemic. It identified those qualities that
worked well and not so well for leaders in successfully bringing the newly formed virtual team
through Bruce Tuckman’s stages of group development (Tuckman & Jensen, 2010). The
audience of this study would primarily be leaders who need to develop the skills necessary to
lead the rapid formation of virtual teams or anyone interested in how such teams can develop.
This is especially timely since so many organizations have been forced to adopt virtual teams in
order to survive (Feitosa & Salas, 2020).
There would also be significant interest in this study in the I-O psychology community
since it is devoted to the study of human behavior within the organizational and work contexts. It
focuses on research that will improve social dynamics within the workplace and uncover
solutions that will increase personal well-being and increase the competitiveness and
performance of an organization. The process of transition from the in-person a virtual worksetting would be of special interest to this community (American Psychological Association
[APA], 2023).
The role of the leader is central to nurturing this process in the case of team formation
(Bekirogullari & Thambusamy, 2020). He or she needs to have a goal in mind, be able to
communicate it well to team members, and cement the team members to each other and to that
goal with trust. This provides the best framework for producing the collaboration that is present
with a successful team. In a virtual team, the group is arguably even more in need of leadership
since the typical social structure of working in a physical presence is no longer available
(Bekirogullari & Thambusamy, 2020).
11
In providing a description of the lived experience of the process that leaders go through
that leads up to the rapid formation of teams in unexpected situations such as a pandemic, the
paper seeks practical implications. The goal of identifying those qualities that worked well and
not so well for leaders in successfully bringing the newly formed virtual team through Bruce
Tuckman’s stages of group development (Tuckman & Jensen, 2010) will advance the theory into
virtual team formation and will perhaps yield valuable information regarding actions that future
leaders can apply to the rapid formation of virtual teams. By profiting from the experience that
others have gone through, many lessons can be applied in the organizational context.
Research Question
How do leaders describe the process of guiding the formation of virtual teams during unexpected
situations, such as a global pandemic?
Definition of Terms
Collaboration – Collaboration is the work, within a team, that provides organizational
success in operations, related to the mission that requires the interdependence of group members
(Cha et al., 2015).
Trust- “The positive assumption about the motives and intentions of another party.” It
permits participants to perform more efficiently without the need to protect themselves from
others (McEvily et al., 2003, p.93). “Relying on others is difficult when there is uncertainty
about their intention, motives, and competencies” (McEvily et al., 2003, p. 93).
Virtual Team – refers to the growing phenomenon of geographically distributed people
working together toward the same end under the umbrella of an organization. The term is
12
sometimes abbreviated as VT. They use internet-based collaboration tools to create the
connections required to work together (Lee-Kelley et al., 2004).
Pandemic – The World Health Organization defines a pandemic as a disease for which
the general public has no immunity and spreads throughout the world with no predictable
conclusion. This is the organization that has the authority to declare when a pandemic is present
(Rafei & Memari, 2021).
COVID-19 – The World Health Organization in 2020 designated COVID-19 as a
pandemic defined as a strain of viral respiratory infection (Rafei & Memari, 2021).
E-Leadership – Leadership within the virtual team setting that requires the individual “to
influence how a team deals with obstacles and how the team and how the team ultimately adapts
in the face of such challenges” (Chamakiotis et al., 2021, p. 2).
ICT- information and communication technology (Grawitch et al., 2023).
Research Design
This qualitative study will made use of a grounded theory design. It sought to describe
the process of leaders as they form virtual teams. The formation of virtual teams during an
unexpected situation, such as a global pandemic, is considered the outcome of the process in
which they engage. This is a longitudinal process as the formation plays out, even though the
process may have been accelerated due to the external environment (Onwuegbuzie & Collins,
2007).
The grounded theory approach leads to inductively generating a grounded theory
describing and explaining the phenomenon being studied, which is the process of leaders as they
form virtual teams. The primary data collection of the selected method is to interview 10-15
13
leaders, and observations will also used. The related data analysis begins with open, axial, and
selective coding. The final narrative report focuses on the description of the topic and people
being studied. The research will produce a presentation of the grounded theory or present a list of
propositions.
The grounded theory approach seeks to discover a theory for a process already in
progress. The process describes distinct phases that happen over time. The analysis uses
inductive reasoning that begins by sketching categories and then narrowing the focus to a
particular category concerning the others (Cresswell & Poth, 2016). This is a good approach
when there is no other existing or complete theory to apply to a situation. It is great for creating a
general framework when there is no previous structure in understanding the process.
Founded by Glaser and Strauss, grounded theory is not linear in design. It employs
iterative actions on the researcher’s part to understand and interpret the subject’s experience. In
this way, it is a flexible methodology that follows a set of structured disciplines that support
collecting data and conducting analysis to investigate the research question. Three genres of the
grounded theory methodology have developed. The traditional model produces a theory that
accounts for a pattern related to the behavior of the subjects. The evolved model relates to the
symbolic meaning of the interactions they encounter. Finally, the constructivist grounded theory
focuses on marrying experience and meaning when analyzing the experience of subjects under
study (Chun et al., 2019).
In order to study this topic, grounded theory presents several advantages as a
methodology. First, it offers an inductive approach to collecting data and using analysis to
construct a theory. It also provides detailed guidance in a sequence for conducting qualitative
research. For instance, the approach is flexible and uses prepared open-ended questions to elicit
14
responses in the interview setting. There are specific ways outlined for data collection and
analysis simultaneously. This iterative process requires the researcher to constantly focus on
what the data is revealing. As structures are made clear through the process of coding, the
researcher makes hypotheses and then compares them to the data (Charmaz, 2017).
Assumptions and Limitations
Assumptions
In a qualitative study, the central research question focuses on the meaning or
descriptions of something. This often concerns social norms as the way that patterns of behavior
are shared within society. In qualitative research, answers are sought by examining the social
settings in which behaviors and interactions take place. It seeks to access unquantifiable
information from people that help the researcher understand their experience. While qualitative
data cannot be generalized over a large population, it does allow the researcher to go deep within
a select group (Cresswell & Poth, 2016).
The credibility of this study relies on the assumption that the participants are giving
truthful and accurate descriptions of their experiences as leaders of for-profit companies that
made a move from in-person to virtual settings during an unexpected situation. These leaders
may not have had the same experiences during this process. Similar themes will become
apparent as a result of analysis and can then be applied to the theoretical framework.
The research also assumes that even though leaders may have had prior experience with
virtual work, the experience of transitioning a team during an unexpected situation will provide
data that will address the research question and the gap in previous research that has been
identified.
15
Ontology. Assumptions were made that each participant had an individual experience
with regard to transitioning a team from an in-person to a virtual work setting (Chen, 2016). The
researcher’s assumptions were that each participant had unique experiences and opinions about
the sudden transition in an unexpected situation. The researcher also recognizes:
Epistemology. The researcher assumes that the researcher and the participant influence
each other during the course of the semi-structured interview (Charmaz, 2017).
Axiology. The researcher’s brings his own values when creating the study. Based on the
researcher’s own biases, it was assumed that leaders who have had the experience of transitioning
a team from the in-person to a virtual work setting would be able to recall and reflect on their
experience with accuracy (Creswell, 2013).
Logic. The use of the grounded theory approach in this study assumes a constructivist
approach will be best for data collection, analysis, and recommendations to advance the study of
this topic (Charmaz, 2017).
Limitations
One challenge of grounded theory is that the researcher needs to set aside presuppositions
to gather data through memoing and the inductive reasoning necessary to analyze the data (Poth,
2016). Another weakness of grounded theory is that due to the amount of information a
researcher is dealing with, it may be difficult to know where to place the boundaries of data that
will form the categories used to create the hypotheses regarding relationships under study. It
must be remembered that the researcher will use saturation to build the categories. It seems that
coming up with those virtual dividers is a bit of an art form (Uri, 2015).
Design Flaw Limitations
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Another challenge is that even though a situation being researched is complex and
dynamic, the mapping in grounded theory research makes data two-dimensional. Sometimes,
depth in the data collected is sacrificed in favor of mapping categories. A potential solution may
be found in layering the data to make it more multidimensional to demonstrate how the data may
interact across categories. This is a skill that demands a good working knowledge of the topic
and a high level of flexibility (Uri, 2015). The researcher will be well served by understanding
and being attentive to these challenges in making use of grounded theory.
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
This grounded theory study examined ways trust can be formed rapidly among team
members when something sudden and unexpected, such as the COVID pandemic, occurs that
necessitates a shift to the virtual team setting. The study of rapid virtual team formation
successes will significantly impact future organizational efforts. The paper will be organized into
five chapters.
Chapter 1 provided a brief introduction to the role of leadership and trust in the formation
of the virtual team. Chapter 2 provides a more comprehensive literature review, including a
synthesis and critique of the existing literature and a detailed look at cognitive categorization
theory and its use in this study. Chapter 3 presents the study methodology, data analysis process,
and ethical considerations. Chapter 4 describes the study results. Finally, Chapter 5 summarizes
the study findings, identifies the study’s implications, and recommends future research.
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CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
The literature regarding the topics of virtual teams and the role of leadership during the
COVID pandemic has grown considerably over the past five years. The researcher initially used
the Summon feature of Capella University’s library search for the term virtual teams, and it
yielded thousands of results, many of which were not relevant to the topic of this study.
However, further exploration of psychology-specific and business peer-reviewed journal
databases and the use of filters dramatically reduced the number of results. When additional
terms, such as trust and Tuckman’s stages of group development, were combined with the
original terms, the number of article results dramatically decreased. This general decrease
demonstrates the need for further study regarding the intersection of the abovementioned terms.
This chapter aims to provide an overview of the existing literature on the experience of
leaders transitioning a team from the in-person to the virtual workplace. It will also provide
scholarly support for some of the themes that support research in this area, such as virtual teams,
leadership, COVID, trust, and Tuckman’s stages of group development. Chapter 2 will also
explain the steps undertaken to search for the most current literature, describe the theoretical
orientation for the study, thoroughly review the literature available, synthesize the findings and
critique them, and provide a summary of the research.
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Methods of Searching
The major topics that guided the literature review process were virtual teams, leadership,
COVID, and Tuckman’s stages of group development. The researcher began the process of
gathering peer-reviewed articles regarding group/ team formation since the first PhD dissertation
residency in 2018. Since then, the researcher has gathered peer-reviewed articles regarding
leadership and virtual teams as they were published. The most important terms searched were
virtual teams, leadership, COVID, trust, and Tuckman’s stages of group development. The
researcher used the following databases besides the Summon feature of Capella University’s
library search: PsycARTICLES, PsychINFO, SAGE Journals Online, Psychology Database, and
Business Source Complete. Each search was restricted to peer-reviewed journal articles, in most
cases, within the last ten years. Even though the topic falls within the category of I-O
psychology, the research spanned many different types of publications, including psychology,
sociology, business, and management, in order to offer a wider overview of the available
literature relating to the topic.
Theoretical Orientation for the Study
This qualitative study will use the grounded theory design. It seeks to describe the
process of leaders forming virtual teams. The formation of virtual teams during an unexpected
situation, such as a global pandemic, is considered the outcome of the process in which they
engage. This is a longitudinal process as the formation plays out, even though the process may
have been accelerated due to the external environment (Onwuegbuzie & Collins, 2007).
In a qualitative study, the central research question focuses on the meaning or
descriptions of something. This often concerns social norms as the way behavior patterns are
shared within society. In qualitative research, answers are sought by examining the social
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settings in which behaviors and interactions take place. It seeks to access unquantifiable
information from people that help the researcher understand their experience. While qualitative
data cannot be generalized over a large population, it does allow the researcher to go deep within
a select group (Cresswell & Poth, 2018). This study inductively generates a grounded theory
describing and explaining the phenomenon of forming virtual teams during unexpected situations
such as a pandemic.
In grounded theory methodology, there is a suggested framework for analysis. As note
taking occurs, the researcher will engage in grounded theory coding as an initial analysis. In this
practice, fragments of data are provided and analyzed as the interviews progress. It begins to
define the data, sometimes even using the participants’ own terms. It also includes the
participants’ non-verbal behavior. The codes written by the researcher also provide the
foundation for follow-up questions. Finally, these codes provide the initial structure for analysis
(Charmaz, 2014).
This study considered the process that leaders go through that guides the rapid formation
of virtual organizational teams in unexpected situations, such as a pandemic. The study will
advance the field of leadership and virtual teams since I-O psychology offers a particular
contribution to group development, and the virtual work setting has become an important context
(Beno, 2018).
Charmaz’s Constructivist Grounded Theory
Charmaz’s (2014) constructivist grounded theory approach was used for this dissertation.
This applies to the gathering of data, the semi-structured interviews that were conducted in
grounded theory methodology; there is also a suggested framework for analysis. As note taking
occurs, the researcher will engage in grounded theory coding as an initial analysis. In this
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practice, fragments of data are analyzed as the interviews progress. It begins to define the data,
sometimes even using the participants’ own terms. It also includes the participants’ non-verbal
behavior. The codes written by the researcher also provide the foundation for follow-up
questions. Finally, these codes provide the initial structure for analysis (Charmaz, 2014).
Data collection was guided by the emerging theory. The researcher purposefully selected
participants and collected data that can help refine and expand the theory. The grounded theory
method involves constant comparative analysis, where data is systematically coded and
compared to identify patterns and categories. Initial codes will emerge from the data, and as data
collection progresses, they will be refined and integrated into conceptual and core categories. It
is important to remember that the codes we use represent the researcher’s perspective. The
researcher then acts on the codes by interacting with the participants based on them. It should
lead the researcher to pose new questions.
In the next stage, the researcher uses focused coding. This involves creating categories
and coding the initial codes. The chief purpose is to highlight what is most important in the data
(Charmaz, 2014). Next, the researcher uses memo writing to gather his or her thoughts and create
more structure. It also allows later recall of a thought process.
Analytic notes are created and filled in categories. This further assists with the grounded
researcher’s search for patterns beyond individual interviews. Once categories are filled, then
they can be ranked in importance. Once this is done, theoretical sampling allows the researcher
to saturate the category with data and further sort them according to the researcher’s working
theory. Abductive reasoning is then used to create a new theoretical model that fits with the data.
The new theoretical model is the grounded theory (Charmaz, 2014).
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Review of the Literature
The literature review is organized according to the main research themes to support this
study’s background. They are presented here as stand-alone themes and then combined to
describe the research that has been reviewed on the interaction of those themes.
Tuckman’s Stages of Group Development
This study uses Bruce Tuckman’s stages of group development as a foundational theory.
This research hopes to build on Tuckman’s theory as it relates to the movement of teams from inperson to virtual work settings. The work of Bruce Tuckman on group development began in
1965. Mary Ann Conover Jensen built it further in 1977. During this time in the workplace, the
use of groups and how they functioned became more used in practice and, consequently, more
deeply studied in academia. According to Miller (2003), by the early 21st century, Tuckman’s
model was the most widely recognized in organizational development literature. The practitioner
community applied the group development model to identify the new approach to working
together in teams, uncovering the development process in that group, and helping consultants
forecast growth stages in groups. This allowed for a common language for discussing and
researching team dynamics (Bonebright, 2010).
Through Taylor’s time and motion studies, industrial researchers focused on individual
productivity during the Industrial Age. The Hawthorne studies also sought to link individual
performance with group benchmarks. Later, researchers began to link participative decisionmaking with group work, leading to the psychosocial decision-making framework (Bonebright,
2010). Tuckman’s initial work in the area of group development came out of this psychosocial
framework that came out of group dynamic work, which was popular in the 1940s. His work
sought to synthesize all of the literature at this time into a unified working theory to understand
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the compilation of that work. His synthesis that coalesced into his theory of group development
is still being cited to the present (Bonebright, 2010).
In the 1970s and 1980s, there was a more significant emphasis in the workplace on using
teams to improve interpersonal performance. Bruce Tuckman’s initial work in the field of
organizational development took place after his graduate work at the Naval Medical Research
Institute was completed. The Navy asked Dr. Tuckman to research group behavior in the setting
of small group interaction in predicted smaller ships and land stations. As a result of his research
there, Tuckman created a theory that revealed stages of group development. The model of the
group life cycle in Tuckman’s theory was separated into two areas. These include interpersonal
tasks and task activity. This was developed into a model incorporating four stages. These are
called forming, storming, norming, and performing. Adjourning was added later (Bonebright,
2010).
The forming is the stage in which the group is assembled. Members look to the formal
leader for direction. At this stage, conflict is avoided in favor of acceptance. Members may feel a
mix of excitement, apprehension, and uncertainty. In order to advance to the next stage, members
must release the fear of threatening topics and the possibility of conflict (Tuckman & Jensen,
2010).
In the storming stage, the group focuses on the process of organizing tasks and processes.
This stage often results in interpersonal conflict. It is dominated by leadership control and the
enforcement of structures. Members may feel defensive, confused, or witness power struggles.
At this stage, the greatest need is effective listening and the establishment of roles and codes of
conduct. In order to advance to the next stage, members must move from the test and prove their
approach to interaction is marked by problem-solving behavior (Tuckman & Jensen, 2010).
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The norming stage witnesses the group developing cohesion and greater shared
leadership. Team members learn the need to trust each other. Processes are accepted, and
conflict-resolution skills have been developed. Team interaction and creativity are high.
Collaboration begins to happen here. To advance to the next stage, members must adapt to each
other (Tuckman & Jensen, 2010).
When the team reaches the performing stage, the interaction is marked by
interdependence, flexibility, and collaboration. The team members become highly productive on
a personal and professional level. The exchange of feedback and dialogue are major features at
this stage, and a general sense of satisfaction is achieved (Tuckman & Jensen, 2010).
In the final stage, adjourning, some or all team members are ready to leave. This causes
significant changes to the team dynamic. It will continue to perform, but members need time to
manage their feelings of loss as the transition occurs. It demonstrates a reversal from giving up
control to inclusion on the team (Tuckman & Jensen, 2010).
Bruce Tuckman identified limitations to his model of group development. The most
significant of these limitations was his concern that his literature review did not include the work
settings where his theory might actually be applied. Instead, there was an overdependence on
evidence gathered in the group therapy context. This may create a further limitation that the
model has been extended beyond its original parameters (Bonebright, 2010).
Other limitations include a lack of quantitative data. His research was done without
controls in a group therapy setting. There was only a vague description of the control of
independent variables. He relied largely on qualitative data in the therapeutic setting. Tuckman
encouraged future research to firm these concerns up.
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Some of this research was conducted in the work setting by Cassidy (2007) in the early
2000, which found Tuckman’s proposed stages did reflect group development with the exception
of some variation in the way the conflict stage was applied and suggested defining the sources of
conflict rather than identify it as a stage. Rickards and Moger (2000) also continued their
research on Tuckman’s stages and concluded that though the stages describe a team’s life cycle,
they are incomplete in describing how groups change over time. The critique focused on the
model’s lack of discussion on creativity and what is needed to exceed performance norms.
Similarly, Gersick (1998) confirmed Tuckman’s stages of group development in terms of being
present in organizational closed settings. She identified the need to address outside influences on
the stages of group development.
Tuckman’s model remains a critical starting point for organizational development
research and practice. The model offers clarity and is flexible enough to be applied to various
situations. A trend stresses the importance of teams in promoting effectiveness in the work
setting. Team development practitioners commonly use Tuckman’s model (Bonebright, 2010). It
serves as the central point for the development of this dissertation study. The forming, storming,
norming, performing, and adjourning stages will provide a template to hold against the
experience of leaders who moved their teams from the in-person to the virtual work setting.
The Changing Nature of Work Pre-pandemic
Even before the COVID-19 pandemic that began in 2019, the nature of work was in the
process of changing due to the introduction of new technology into the work setting. The move
from hunter-gatherer to agrarian to industrial to information technology ages have all been
marked by the need to be more efficient in the way that society cares for its members. In the
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information technology age, new technologies came into use in the workplace that changed the
nature of work that had been present up until that time.
For instance, in the 1990s, computers and software were introduced as common tools to
be used in the work setting. Then, email began to replace typewritten correspondence and postal
mail. In the last decade, we have become increasingly reliant on mobile technology, such as cell
phones and laptop computers; to work from anywhere there is Internet service. Technology is
now present in every stage of the work process. Before the pandemic, information technology
tools were introduced to facilitate employee collaboration. The open-source software movement
of open models of both work and innovation were introduced to work. There was a shift to
creating more access to information. This shift began to spur a conversation about the
development of skills needed by workers and began to blur the lines between work, personal life,
and leisure (Forman et al., 2014).
According to Burke et al. (2006), these factors have led organizations and employees to
different workplace expectations. For instance, employees have greater salary expectations. They
want more opportunities to participate in decision-making. There is also a more widespread
awareness of how employees are treated fairly and respectfully. Additionally, they are more
concerned with work-life balance and how their work affects the family.
From an organizational perspective, companies are focused on talent. Leaders are
managing a diverse pool of workers more and more. If done well, this can lead to greater
innovation, improved decision-making, and better competitiveness in the marketplace.
Companies are challenging employees by the implementation of emerging technologies, which
allow the processing of greater and greater amounts of data, the increased ease of sharing that
information, and increasing opportunities to communicate more freely. This has led companies to
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expect employees to be facile knowledge workers in the technologies described. These
knowledge workers are more autonomous than previous workers. They are more involved in
working in a team setting. One challenge is that it is hard to measure their knowledge work, so
companies need to find ways to measure performance to manage workers well (Burke et al.,
2006).
Before the COVID-19 pandemic, technology made telecommuting possible by meeting
online and working in virtual teams to get business done. In 2005, the knowledge workers
described above only spent about 40% of their work time in the traditional office. Thirty percent
of the work time was spent in home offices, and the other 30% was spent in other locations like
coffee shops and other common spaces. However, this may not have benefitted employees since
they were now more accessible by their employees through technology. All of these factors have
served to decentralize and flatten corporate structures. This requires new mindsets from both
employer and employee. Higher levels of engagement and trust building were found to be
necessary to keep knowledge workers connected and performing (Burke et al., 2006).
This topic is valuable for this dissertation study because it gauges the trends in the
workplace pre-pandemic regarding the changing nature of work and expectations within
organizations. Understanding that the tools used during the pandemic to form virtual teams were
either in development or being used to some degree in the workplace already. It is also helpful to
know that many employees were familiar with the technologies that would be used greatly
during the pandemic. Finally, it is important to note that expectations have already shifted within
organizations regarding the use of technology, work-life balance, new requirements for
leadership, and increasing pressures of accessibility and communication.
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Virtual Teams
Virtual teams refer to the growing phenomenon of geographically distributed people
working together toward the same end under the umbrella of an organization. The term is
sometimes abbreviated as VT. They use Internet-based collaboration tools to create the
connections required to work together (Lee-Kelley et al., 2004). The term “virtual teams” was
coined in 1992 and is described as a paradigm shift allowing organizations to account for time
differences. The concept also allowed companies to reduce the amount of resources spent on
travel and moving employees and, at the same time, diversify employees from whatever physical
location the talent happened to be. At the beginning of the early 1990s, the technology needed to
make virtual teaming a reality could have been more reliable. The tasks needed were the ability
to access and share documents, meet at the same time from different geographical locations, and
accomplish complex assignments as a team. At this time, virtual teams failed to perform as well
as their in-person work counterparts. Additionally, both managers and their employees needed
clarification about this paradigm. There was a need to be more experience with the technology
and the social dynamic skills necessary to perform well in the virtual setting (Gilson et al., 2021).
As time went on, the technology that addressed some of these issues was developed and
introduced to the workplace. These new tools offer the ability for greater communication and
collaboration. For instance, virtual teams use synchronous calendar sharing and the ability to
work on documents simultaneously. Video-conferencing and instant messaging have introduced
new communication pathways. Online collaboration tools have revolutionized project
management and performance management abilities. Leadership has increasingly become a
critical factor in the success of virtual teams (Gilson et al., 2021).
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In the early days of virtual work, employees reported feeling disconnected from their
team. Comfort level with the use of technology has improved. It has now been found that even
when workers are located together in person, they choose to make use of the technological
advancements mentioned above (Gilson et al., 2021).
The research on virtual teams varies greatly from various disciplines such as business, IO psychology, human resources, consulting, and organizational change. Grawitch et al. (2023)
have pointed out a tension between cost-benefit to the company and connectivity of the
employees. Often, employees work more hours than they would in an in-person office setting,
and the phenomenon of blurring work-home boundaries. Therefore, they argue that the benefits
of working on virtual teams are only total for some. Some workers may benefit from spending
more time in-person, while others perform better remotely. They do however, cite that the crucial
element in maximizing benefits to the company and individual is the growth and maintenance of
trust (Grawitch, 2023).
The literature documents the understanding of virtual teams’ nature and place in the
workplace. There are many studies that research the strengths and weaknesses of the
implementation of virtual teams and the effect on companies’ performance and cost (McAvoy &
Butler, 2006; Messenger & Gschwind, 2016; Orhan, 2017; Townsend et al., 1998). Others focus
on the well-being and needs of employees in the virtual work setting (Gresch et al., 2020; Gupta
et al., 2017; Handke et al., 2020; Kim & Lee, 2013; Schulze & Krumm, 2017).
Most of the literature points to the virtual technology aspect of virtual teams but needs to
provide insight into the actual process of employees becoming team members in the virtual
context. The literature suggests that the academic community research the team adaptation
process further, including forming new teams and bringing new team members on board (Gilson
29
et al., 2014). The literature does point to an element of virtual teams that needs to be further
researched, and this is the role of the leader in virtual teams. There is nothing that could be found
in the experience of leaders in the process of moving a team from the in-person to the virtual
setting (Grawitch, 2023).
COVID Pandemic (Restrictions)
On January 20, 2020, the Center for Disease Control (CDC) reported the first laboratoryconfirmed case of the 2019 Novel Coronavirus. The same day, the CDC activated its response to
the emerging outbreak. There were three behaviors that were promoted by the healthcare
community and by the government in the United States to slow the spread of the disease. These
included social distancing, hand washing, and the use of face masks. There were public
education campaigns that aimed to raise awareness of and encourage compliance with the
behavioral measures that were thought to address the early stages of the spread of the pandemic
(Latkin et al., 2021)
The early need for social distancing resulted in the prohibition of public gatherings in
groups in many states. Each state was able to create its policies to slow the spread of the COVID
pandemic. This meant that the in-person work setting was impossible in many places across the
United States. For instance, as of March 22, 2020, New York City had closed all of its
nonessential businesses. In a study conducted for the CDC by Borjas (2020) in New York City,
the data indicated a direct correlation between the stay-at-home index and the fall of the
positivity rate for COVID-19, along with a decreased business activity index.
Some states permitted workers to enter the workplace if deemed to be essential service
providers or manufacturers. In terms of social distancing in the workplace, the CDC
recommended staying at least 6 feet apart when in group settings such as the workplace. They
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also called for anyone who felt ill to stay at home and avoid the workplace altogether. A study by
Gravina et al. (2020) concluded that organizations played a critical role in helping to reduce the
transmission of disease. Some companies that adopted these policies in the long term still have
yet to return to a five-day in-person workweek. Many employees have remained in the remote
work setting either partially or completely.
COVID Pandemic and Virtual Teams
Prior to the outbreak of COVID-19, remote work was not a widely spread practice.
Remote work was about 2.9 % of the US workforce just before the pandemic was announced.
Due to this low number, most employees, before the pandemic, lacked remote experience.
Similarly, the companies they worked for were also unprepared for a rapid movement from the
in-person to the virtual work setting (Wang, 2020). Studies conducted before the pandemic by
Martin and MacDonnell (2012) and Gajendran and Harrison (2007) revealed the benefits of
working remotely, such as a quieter work environment, saving commuting time, and the
flexibility of work at an individual’s peak performance times (Mihalca et al., 2021).
In the case of the widespread outbreak of the COVID pandemic in 2020, many
companies needed to implement a workplace response of the remote work setting, sometimes
called teleworking. Since most tasks in an organization are placed within the function of teams,
many individual workers found themselves as members of virtual teams after the shift due to the
need for social distancing. These virtual teams are comprised of geographically dispersed
employees who work together on a common project and use technology to communicate and
organize their work to reach the organization’s goals (Schlaegel et al., 2023).
The main difference between virtual work during normal circumstances and such work
during the pandemic was that it was previously offered as a choice to the few working from
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home. In the latter case, virtual work was imposed abruptly. While the transition to remote work
was important for business continuity, the outcomes of employee productivity, performance, and
job satisfaction are unclear (Mihalca et al., 2021).
The article by Schlaegel et al. (2023) focuses on the lack of research on the
characteristics that help virtual teams deal with external adversity. In this article, the researchers
examine if self-regulation in stressful situations is a determining factor for performance. They
also indicate that little work has been done regarding the leader’s role in moderating selfregulation in the virtual team setting. Previous research indicated that performance is negatively
affected when workers are subjected to the stress of disasters outside of their control. The
researchers link the role of a disaster to the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic. They note that
since the disaster unfolded over a longer period of time than a natural disaster, the stress that
team members had to endure persisted over a longer period and was ingrained as part of the
long-term work environment.
Wang et al. (2020) conducted a study that found that engaging in a remote setting
significantly alters the way that employees function in their roles. For instance, major changes in
demands on time, newfound autonomy, new social dynamics, and even job descriptions may
impact the employees’ work commitments. Overall, the study found that while there may be
fewer distractions in remote work, there is a detrimental experience of the loss of the relational
aspects of work, including the formation of trust. This lack of social support may negatively
affect job satisfaction, family conflict, and even the potential to leave the job. Conversely, other
studies have reported that workers with social support from leaders and larger organizations have
high levels of job satisfaction. It further found that social interference from within the home is
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the most reported source of distraction. Managing those distractions becomes a critical feature of
performance (Bentley et al., 2006).
The Wang et al. study (2020) argues that a new framework needs to be developed for
understanding individual performance on a virtual work team. They suggest that job autonomy
provides the necessary flexibility for virtual workers to manage interference in the home. The
researchers also found that the problem of procrastination that hurts performance could be
positively managed by introducing social support and project management tools to the virtual
team setting. The study found that online social interactions may not be sufficient to mitigate the
isolation felt by team members. The same study also found that the quality of the communication
matters. Until online modes of communication can match the quality of face-to-face exchange,
the in-person mode will continue to be superior.
The researchers (Wang, 2020) also suggest that more work must be done to recommend
how high-quality virtual communications may be introduced to the virtual work setting to
provide workers with better social interaction. The focus needs to be on assisting organizations
and leaders to manage remote teams more effectively by thinking about how roles are defined.
The formation of trust among team members is of major concern, and every effort should be
made to identify pathways to achieve that better. Also, even though companies find cost savings
through lower travel expenses and less real estate management, they should be especially
attentive to the drawbacks and pitfalls of remote work and proactively address them. Finally,
using advanced business social media applications such as Slack or Microsoft Teams may
provide the necessary technology to meet these needs if they can be effectively integrated into
regular usage. They advise that a future need will be to collect data from a longitudinal study to
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understand the performance of the virtual team over time and not simply a cross-section from
one period of time (Wang, 2020).
Tuckman’s Stages and Virtual Teams
There is much interest in the best strategies for virtual work, both in the organizational
context and the academic setting. However, the amount of literature available on the use of
Tuckman’s model of group development in the formation of virtual teams is slim. The literature
search only produced two recent studies in peer-reviewed journals.
A study by Kalamudin et al. (2022) explored the relationship between an online learning
community and Tuckman’s stages during the COVID-19 pandemic. The researchers drew the
parallel between students working together and the collaboration that takes place within virtual
teams. Projects designed with group work in mind, for example, provide opportunities for
interaction in the online environment. They argue that these projects must be designed and
managed intentionally to promote understanding of roles, positive social interactions, and the
opportunity for some face-to-face interaction.
This quantitative study uses Tuckman’s stages of forming, storming, norming, and
performing to demonstrate how the online group examined moves through these stages over
time. This concept is valuable because it demonstrates the development of an online group
within the academic setting. The practice of collaboration skills had a positive effect on the
group’s performance. They defined collaboration as the students asking for input, listening for
feedback, seeking clarification if necessary, and actively contributing to discussions (Kalamudin,
2022).
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The researchers pointed out that despite the positive outcomes of online group
development, there are also complexities that make the development of such a group difficult.
The lack of physical presence makes forming trust in human relationships more challenging.
Group members may feel disconnected, leading to a loss of group belonging and a network of
support. Technical difficulties or a lack of understanding of how to best use the technology may
lead to difficulty with communication. This may lead to increased stress and frustration as a
group member. Some of the other difficulties named as a result of the study were the unequal
distribution of work tasks, incomplete submissions, and free riders (workers who contribute little
to nothing to accomplish the team mission). They found that the educator, the formal leader role,
had a weighty responsibility in planning, managing social interaction, and holding individual
group members accountable (Kalamudin et al., 2022).
Within Tuckman’s conceptual framework, it was found that learners preferred to choose
their group members rather than be assigned. This refers to the dependency needs of group
members in the forming stage. They seek compatibility and unity when forming the group. In the
storming stage, group members began to interact with each other and demonstrate emotional
responses as the group navigated the completion of group tasks. The group developed a standard
code of acceptable behaviors by the norming stage. Individual tasks were completed and brought
back to the group. The educator sometimes intervened to facilitate the social interaction. Finally,
in the performing stage, more interpersonal interaction manifests more collaborative work,
higher engagement, and enhanced critical thinking and problem-solving abilities.
The research team concluded that, in the academic setting, students have the opportunity
to enrich learning and participation, but at the same time, presents many challenges related to the
social element of working on a team. The online group setting permits a wider diversity of ideas
35
and, therefore, higher critical thinking and problem solving levels. The researchers suggest future
research into strategies that will make group work more efficient in reaching the performing
stage (Kalamudin et al., 2022). For the purpose of this dissertation study, there is a parallel with
the formation of groups in the online setting. This may be useful in examining parallels with the
online workplace instead of the academic setting. It also leaves room for studying unexpected
transitions to the virtual setting.
Kiweewa et al. (2018) also conducted a quantitative study that used Tuckman’s model to
understand the growth of a team undergoing online training. They used Tuckman’s stages as
predictors of how the group would develop in a graduated fashion. They also found that the
stages have the potential to be reached. There is no guarantee that every team will reach the
performing level. Additionally, the amount of time spent at each level varied by team and could
not be anticipated. The study also found that the level of experience self-reported by the formal
group leader had an impact on the amount of time spent in each stage and the capacity of the
group to perform at all. They also found that it is possible to regress in terms of moving back
from a more advanced stage to an earlier one in the case of one of the study groups that
experienced the storming stage at three intervals throughout the 11-interval period of study. This
drew the conclusion that the leader is especially important during the early stages of group
development in the online setting (Kiweewa, 2018).
This study (Kiweewa, 2018) offers useful findings on the interaction of group members
in the online setting. It confirms the usefulness of using Tuckman’s stages as a conceptual model
for studying group development in a virtual setting. This study was limited by focusing on the
educational sector, not the workplace. There is a need to further explore the role and experience
of the leader/ facilitator of online groups, particularly in their role during the formation of these
36
virtual groups. There is an opportunity for further research into virtual team formation in private
industry.
Team Performance and Trust
Trust building is a central process for the performance of virtual teams. The literature by
Oertig and Buergi (2006) and Prasad and Akhilesh (2002) discuss the need for trust to be built
incrementally so that tasks can be completed more rapidly. This reveals the interdependence
between task completion and trust. De Jong et al. (2007) study discusses the performance of an
individual group member depending on the level of skill and action among the group as a whole.
This is especially true for virtual teams, where the quality of social interaction among group
members has a positive link with trust Dirks & Ferrin (2001).
The trust found among members of virtual teams is fragile. It can be formed with the
assistance of the technology used by virtual teams but is equally in danger of being eroded
through misunderstandings in communication, lack of quality social interaction, and lack of
accountability. Trust allows for the democratization of knowledge necessary for interdependence
and feedback. The sharing of knowledge allows teams to solve complex problems together.
Team performance is likely to decline when knowledge is not shared well (Pnjani & Palvia,
2012).
In the context of team performance, trust is the level of confidence that those who are
acting will abide by the commitments that they have made. McEvily et al. (2003, p.93) define
trust as “The positive assumption about the motives and intentions of another party.” It permits
participants to perform more efficiently without the need to protect themselves from others.
Relying on others is very difficult when there is uncertainty about the intentions, motives, and
competencies of others.
37
In the quantitative study by Olson et al. (2012), trust formation is aided in the virtual
team setting by the use of advanced communication media. The more a virtual work tool
encouraged and facilitated social interaction among team members, the more individual
perceptions of trust increased. The more time permitted for group members to adapt to the
technology they are tasked to use, the greater the level of trust and performance a group may be
expected to have. Olson et al. also suggested a study of virtual teams and the development of
trust related to time pressure and complex tasks. This would fit well with the dissertation topic of
leaders’ experience as they move teams from the in-person to the virtual setting in unexpected
situations, such as a pandemic.
In more recent literature published around the time of the outbreak of the COVID-19
pandemic, Zakirah and Yusof (2020) did quantitative research regarding the formation of trust
among global virtual teams. They look into the trust formed by millennials, individuals born
between 1981 and 1995, in the virtual team environment. They affirm that virtual teams follow
the same pattern of formation and need for trust building as in-person teams. They found that the
software that allows team members to communicate best by receiving fast feedback and support
was most helpful in forming and maintaining trust. This may even be more efficient for
communication than if team members worked face-to-face. Using social media consistently
allowed team members to build trust quickly by getting to know each other informally. This
eased the social interaction necessary for the trust required for overall team performance.
The study referred to the five stages modeled by Tuckman without directly referencing
him. Instead, they characterized the stages with numbers that corresponded to the social dynamic
characterized by Tuckman’s model of group development. Zakirah and Yusof (2020) called this
the swift trust formation model. They concluded that no team development is possible without
38
the formation of trust among team members. They base the success of trust-building on the
performance of the team. They stress the need to train global managers on what characteristics
need to be formed in virtual team members. Also, the correct Internet tools need to be chosen in
order to facilitate the development of trust in such teams. This study continues to build on the
importance of trust in virtual team formation and also nods to the consistency of team
development using Tuckman’s model of group development as a structure to understand the
process.
The study by Lukic and Vracar (2018) concludes that the leader of a virtual team plays an
outsized role in facilitating the formation of trust. The leader must carefully plan and implement
virtual teams based on organizational values, resources, and goals. In order to build trust in the
long term, appropriate social interaction must be curated to allow team members to continue to
communicate well.
The researchers conclude that it is vital to be intentional about which workers are placed
on the team, the appointment an effective leader, building awareness regarding swift trust, and
focus on reliable and consistent communication (Lukic & Vracar, 2018). These findings point to
the importance of studying the experience of leaders as they facilitate the movement of a team to
the remote work environment. There is a particular gap in the literature that addresses this move
in unexpected situations, especially since past studies point to the need for an orderly and wellthought-out process for the formation of virtual teams in ordinary circumstances.
Managing Virtual Teams
The best leaders have the opportunity to transform themselves to meet the organization’s
goals. This is especially true in the context of the formation of virtual teams. This is valuable not
39
only for individuals but also for team performance success. The pandemic created a new need for
the remote setting in the workplace. In the remote context, leadership is sometimes called eleadership (Contreras et al., 2020).
There was a trend in remote work prior to the COVID-19 pandemic that was possible due
to developing technologies in the Internet and communications field that permitted information
to be shared and communication to occur without a face-to-face setting. Previously, remote work
was an option offered by the organization. The pandemic forced a sudden change in how people
worked. This sudden remote work meant that workers had a different kind of support than they
previously experienced from supervisors when in person. Suddenly, leaders were asked to
transform how they interacted with their subordinates as e-leaders (Contreras et al., 2020).
In crises, e-leaders must enable and guide their team through the remote work
environment to maintain work performance. The study by Bartsch et al. (2020) found that leaders
took charge by clarifying expectations, distributing tasks, and designing work patterns for virtual
team members. These leadership behaviors had the effect of reducing uncertainty and stress
among the employees in the study. At the same time, the e-leader is expected to attend to virtual
team members’ emotional health and social interaction. It is also critical for these leaders to
understand the potential of the technology at their disposal and make sure that its proper use is
effectively integrated into the plan of work expected of the team (Bartsch et al., 2020).
E-leaders have the responsibility to guide the building of effective virtual teams to meet
organizational goals. An e-leader faces a different social dynamic environment than the
conventional workplace. There are new and more complex communication and social media
tools in use, new standards to consider for performance, new modes of training, and the need to
promote social interaction in new ways (Flood, 2019).
40
In order to adapt to the virtual setting, leaders must have a flatter reporting structure and a
less hierarchical view. Since the virtual setting is mediated by technology and not in-person
social cues, leadership needs to be closer to the tasks of each employee. This necessitated the
development of trust in their professional relationships. This allows for a greater exchange of
ideas, better communication, and more innovation (Contreras et al., 2020). In 2019, Panteli et al.
found that leaders in the virtual context could increase employee engagement through an attitude
of support and development.
The ability of the e-leader to build trust in the virtual team is crucial for performance.
Since virtual teams might be located geographically near or all across the globe, the e-leader is
faced with coordinating different time zones and potentially diverse cultures. The study by
Contreras et al. (2020) points to a lack of knowledge of e-leadership skills that must be
developed and taught.
An organization that effectively integrates virtual teams led by seasoned e-leaders will
possess a competitive advantage in their industry. Well-lead virtual teams provide diversity that
leads to innovation in problem-solving and uncovering new opportunities. In order to have a
diverse workforce, an e-leader has to have the skill of recruiting, retaining, and motivating
virtual team members (Gupta & Pathak, 2018).
E-leaders need to be highly skilled in communicating and connecting with team
members. They need to consider how the team should receive and interpret communications.
Further, they should focus on building team trust and cohesion by establishing expectations for
communication, sharing knowledge, and motivation. The pandemic has forced the need to
understand how to select and train effective e-leaders. However, there needs to be more research
on how e-leaders can be successful. Further studies are needed to explore the impact of e41
leadership on the successes and failures of the virtual team (Contreras et al., 2020). This is useful
for this dissertation study since the pandemic was so recent, there is still a gap in studying the
experience of leaders and the formation of virtual teams, especially when not anticipated in a
crisis situation and well planned ahead of time.
Virtual Teams and Technology
The development of technology in a working landscape that is dominated by a
knowledge-based and networked economy has allowed increasing levels of collaboration. The
adaptation of these technologies by industry has allowed the possibility of networked remote
work opportunities. Even before the COVID-19 pandemic, virtual teams were growing in
popularity, even though some limitations were not fully resolved (Henttonen & Blomqvist,
2005).
Brahm et al. (2012) found that trust was the preeminent issue in the formation of virtual
team performance. Trust allows the virtual team to develop a high level of team cohesion. This
attribute is necessary to communicate well, share information, and also access other team
members’ work. Team trust plays a central role in reaching team goals.
The researchers found that trust plays a moderating role between goal setting and team
cohesion. They found that when trust is at low levels in the group, team members do not have
high confidence that their peers will work toward the stated team goals. There is also likely to be
free riding behavior. This is when only a portion of the team does the work and the others
contribute little or no effort to reaching the team goals. A low trust level in the group may also
foster more conflict among the members. This study provided a helpful piece of the puzzle
regarding the role of trust in virtual teams. It was limited by using data from a single company in
42
a quantitative approach. It also collected data from employees that were voluntarily working on
virtual teams in an ordinary situation. There was no emergency or crisis involved (Brahm, 2012).
A recent quantitative study by Carter (2022) explores the usage and effectiveness of
remote work applications and virtual tools meant for collaboration. The technology available for
remote work has developed into human-machine interface at its most advanced in order to
maximize communication and efficiency. There are wearable augmented reality devices that
allow users to don glasses or goggles in order to see and hear in an immersive experience apart
from the actual setting. These have been shown to optimize worker performance and be at least
virtually present to a virtual team (Kraus et al, 2022; Zvarikova et al., 2022).
More commonly, virtual teams use specialized data management tools to provide
networked data sharing and increased ability to communicate person to person and across an
entire team or organization in real-time. Artificial intelligence allows managers to monitor how
employees spend their time, track data flow, and provide analytic dashboards that partially report
on performance metrics (Carter, 2022).
The social media and data-sharing platforms widely in use for remote work management,
virtual recruitment, and performance analytics have been shown to have some limitations on
building trust and group cohesion. Technologies that are being integrated into the work setting
by early adopters benefit virtual teams in the ways that more widely used tools are falling short.
Suppose workers can see and hear team members in augmented reality settings, including in a
three-dimensional view. In that case, they can feel more connected to virtual team members,
build trust more efficiently, and reach high performance more quickly than is currently the case
(Carter, 2022).
43
On the other hand, there is some evidence that these new technologies present challenges
for remote work that are not being addressed. For instance, during the pandemic, the largest
digital platform for communication worldwide became Zoom. Within a few weeks of social
restrictions that closed in-person work all around the globe, Zoom had security breaches that
affected corporate and personal privacy and confidentiality. In a qualitative study on the ways
that using the Zoom platform impacted faculty decision-making on interacting with students in
the crisis situation of the COVID-19 pandemic, Dassel and Kline (2023) found that expertise
with the technology differed widely. When time and uncertainty present pressures to make
decisions regarding remote work, there is an increased risk of mistakes, especially when
decisions depend on individual expertise.
The previous research on virtual teams and technology is useful in demonstrating that the
tools available for remote work continue to develop. It is essential to balance the choice and
integration of this technology with the needs of the team, the individual experience of the leader
and members, and the level of social interaction desired. It is limited because the literature
reviewed regarding the rapid shift to the use of this technology focused on the educational setting
and less on the industry. None of the literature examined the rapid shift to virtual teams and the
integration of the technology mentioned.
Review of Methodological Literature on
Grounded Theory and Remote Work
Very little peer-reviewed literature uses the grounded theory qualitative approach to
study remote work. In fact, a search using the keywords “grounded theory” and “remote work”
yielded only one study. Grounded theory allows the researcher to explore and understand
complex processes about which there is little known.
44
Grounded theory seems the best fit for the research topic of the process that leaders go
through that guides the rapid formation of virtual organizational teams in unexpected situations,
such as a pandemic. This is because the study relies on engaging leaders who have had to make
things happen in a crisis situation. The result of the semi-structured interviews will need to
collect data from different sources, all with unique perspectives, and weave that information into
an overall concept, resulting in a new theory.
The study by Mertens and Schollaert (2023) used grounded theory to study the
experience of HR managers offering feedback on performance management. They conducted
interviews until they reached data saturation. After coding and doing an analysis of the data,
iteratively, the researchers found the need for feedback from employees increased during the
pandemic. Using grounded theory, they identified the need for positive reinforcement during
uncertain situations. The limitations of this study were that the participants were all based in
Belgium in a particular cultural context, and they were only involved in human resources.
Similarly, this dissertation study will make use of semi-structured interviews with leaders
to understand their experience of moving teams from the in-person setting to remote work. The
analysis will follow a similar pattern of coding and doing an analysis of the data in an iterative
manner to produce an overall understanding and make recommendations. For these reasons,
grounded theory is the best approach and will contribute to the field where it has yet to be
applied often.
Synthesis of the Research Findings
The research literature indicates that the formation of a well-performing team does not
happen on its own. This is especially true of virtual teams. E-leaders need to be highly skilled in
45
communicating and connecting with team members. They need to consider how the team should
receive and interpret communications. Further, they should focus on building team trust and
cohesion by establishing expectations for communication, sharing knowledge, and motivation
(Contreras et al., 2020).
The ability of the e-leader to build trust in the virtual team is crucial for performance.
Since virtual teams might be located geographically near or all across the globe, the e-leader is
faced with coordinating different time zones and potentially diverse cultures. The study by
Contreras et al. (2020) points to a need for more knowledge of e-leadership skills that must be
developed and taught. It will be valuable for this dissertation study to explore if and how the
leaders interviewed were able to build trust and, if they were successful, how they accomplished
it.
Many previous studies have acknowledged the challenges of building trust in the team
context in person. This process is made even more difficult in the virtual setting. Zakirah and
Yusof (2020) did quantitative research regarding trust formation among global virtual teams. In
the virtual team environment, they look into the trust formed by millennials, individuals born
between 1981 and 1995. They affirm that virtual teams follow the same pattern of formation and
need for trust building as in-person teams.
The study by Lukic and Vracar (2018) concludes that the leader of a virtual team plays an
outsized role in facilitating the formation of trust. The leader must carefully plan and implement
virtual teams based on organizational values, resources, and goals. In order to build trust in the
long term, appropriate social interaction must be curated to allow team members to continue to
communicate well. The researchers conclude that it is vital to be intentional about workers
46
placed on the team, appoint an effective leader, build awareness with regard to swift trust, and
focus on reliable and consistent communication (Lukic & Vracar, 2018).
These findings point to the importance of studying the experience of leaders as they
facilitate the movement of a team to the remote work environment. There is a particular gap in
the literature that addresses this move in unexpected situations, especially since past studies point
to the need for an orderly and well-thought-out process for forming virtual teams in ordinary
circumstances.
In addition, crisis situations place even more emphasis on the role of leadership. In crisis
situations, e-leaders must enable and guide their team through the remote work environment to
maintain work performance. The study by Bartsch et al. (2020) found that leaders took charge by
clarifying expectations, distributing tasks, and designing work patterns for virtual team members.
These leadership behaviors had the effect of reducing uncertainty and stress among the
employees in the study. At the same time, the e-leader is expected to attend to virtual team
members’ emotional health and social interaction. It is also critical for these leaders to understand
the potential of the technology at their disposal and make sure that its proper use is effectively
integrated into the plan of work expected of the team (Bartsch et al., 2020). This will be an
essential aspect to explore in this research study.
Another important finding was that Bruce Tuckman’s stages of group development are a
widely accepted model for understanding team formation. Some recent studies (Kiweewa, 2018)
and (Kalamudin, 2022) offer useful findings on the interaction of group members in the online
setting. The study (Kiweewa, 2018) confirms the usefulness of using Tuckman’s stages as a
conceptual model for studying group development in a virtual setting. This study was limited by
focusing on the educational sector, not the workplace.
47
The study by Kalamudin (2022) uses Tuckman’s stages of forming, storming, norming,
and performing to demonstrate how the online group examined moves through these stages over
time. This concept is valuable because it demonstrates the development of an online group
within the academic setting. The degree to which the group of students could practice
collaboration skills had a positive effect on the group’s performance. They defined collaboration
as the students asking for input, listening for feedback, seeking clarification if necessary, and
actively contributing to discussions (Kalamudin, 2022).
The past studies reviewed indicate that there is a need to explore further the role and
experience of the leader/ facilitator of online groups, particularly in their role during the
formation of these virtual groups. There is an opportunity for further research into leadership and
virtual team formation in private industry. This…
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