1.
Read “Mimesis” and “Penelope’s Worth,” then write a summary of that article, no more than ½ page in length, which explains the article’s main claim and the arguments it uses to support that claim.
2.
Write a poem as usual (20-40lines as usual)
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TITLE: Odysseus’ Scar
AUTHOR: Erich Auerbach
SOURCE: Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western
Literature
PUBLISHER: Princeton University Press
YEAR: 1953
PAGES: 3-23
Penelope’s Worth: Looming Large in Early Greece
Author(s): Carol G. Thomas
Source: Hermes, 116. Bd., H. 3 (3rd Qtr., 1988), pp. 257-264
Published by: Franz Steiner Verlag
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4476626
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Hermes
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PENELOPE’S WORTH:
LOOMING LARGE IN EARLY GREECE
The value of Penelope’s hand in marriage remains an unsolved mystery
despite the amount of discussion the issue has raised. A common argument
asserts that marriage to her was the key to the kingship of Ithaca. NILSSON
argued that >>The hereditary principle was so deep-rooted that the throne when
empty was given away with the hand of the queen dowager …<<'. More
recently, Luce advanced something of the same position: >)It is clear (though
never stated in so many words) that the successful suitor could hope to become
king. Penelope’s choice of husband would legitimize the succession 2<<.
It is not easy to understand why Penelope should confer the kingship unless
earlier matriarchal institutions lingered in parts of Greece. By this argument,
the epic poets vaguely recalled conditions of the past when the power of
women was greater and so conferred special powers on certain women like
Penelope.
Some years ago I examined the question of Greek matriarchy in light of
evidence from the Bronze Age cultures of Minoan Crete and the Mycenaean
mainland and from the Dark Age culture of Greece3. Nothing leads me to
alter the conclusion of that article that matriarchal institutions are almost in-
visible in both the Mycenaean and later Dark Age Greek cultures. It is true
that women are prominent in the artefacts of the Minoan civilization, a
visibility that may suggest a high status in society. Yet even though
mainlanders were strongly influenced by Minoan culture in the second millen-
nium B. C. E., Mycenaean society remained patriarchal. Dark Age Greece,
too, appears to have been a masculine world. The language of the epics reveals
the role of women in the survival of the OlKOf but shows them exercising little,
if any, directive role in society. If matriarchy flourished in Greece, its floruit
must be placed before the Bronze Age. Remembrance across the course of
several millennia seems a weak thesis to account for the value of marriage to
Penelope.
Quite a different answer to the question of Penelope’s status is that it is a
poetic creation. The entire world of the epics is fictitious, never existing on
‘ M. P. NILSSON, Homer and Mycenae (London, 1933) 225-6.
2 J. V. LUCE, Homer and the Heroic Age (London and New York, 1975).
3 oMatriarchy in Early Greece: The Bronze and Dark Ages<, Arethusa 6 (1973) 173-195.
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258 CAROL G. THOMAS
land or sea. Consequently it is a mistake to regard the poems as representative
of actual institutions of any sort4.
It must be conceded that the epic poems contain a variety of strands. There
are heirlooms from the Bronze Age as well as references belonging to the
poet’s own time. Equally diverse are the fictitious and factual elements of the
tales. The Catalogue of Ships has been shown to reflect a Bronze Age pattern
of settlement while individual characters and situations are clearly the pro-
ducts of the poetic imagination5. However, the Iliad and Odyssey belong to
the category of >>literature<< that derives from a oral tradition. One of the
essential features of any oral testimony is that it speak directly and im-
mediately to its audience. Uncertain archaisms will be modernized6 or they
will give rise to interpolations of an explanatory nature7. Change in the
received tradition is gradual but constant, making the testimony understan-
dable to the present audience for which it is sung or told. Consequently, it is
possible to argue that the Homeric epics preserve the essential structure of an
operative society8. So, the courtship of Penelope cannot be explained away
as poetic creation.
Assuming that her status corresponds to the real world of Homer’s au-
dience, let us examine her value in the context of late Dark Age Greece. What
institutions and beliefs are reflected in the status of the wife of Odysseus?
It is obvious that she is highly desirable. >>In beauty, stature and sense
there is not a woman to touch you<, Eurymachus tells her (a 248-9). For three
years she has been courted by 108 of the ?tgy’ ‘apioTot / XopWV giV ‘It9dCK
(j 121-2). Only recently, in the dramatic time of the poem, has her ruse of
4 S. BASSETT, The Poetry of Homer (Berkeley, 1938) 244: )>He created a life that never was
on land or sea. The men of his times did not care to know; they were content to enter into and
make their own a mythos of life.<< More recently, A. SNODCGRASS has taken a similar position in
)>An Historical Homeric Society?<< J. H. St. (1974) 114-25. SNODGRASS maintains that the poems
are based on historical sources of great diversity in nature and time.
I R. H. SIMPSON and F. LAZENBY, The Catalogue of Ships in Homer’s Iliad (Oxford, 1970).
6 M. PARRY, L’Epithete traditionelle dans Homere (Paris, 1928) and English tr. pp. 1-190 in
A. PARRY, The Making of Homeric Verse (Oxford, 1971) and A. B. LORD, The Singer of Tales
(Cambridge, Mass., 1960) 33 et passim.
7 J. VANSINA, Oral Tradition, A Study in Historical Methodology tr. H. M. WRIGH1 (Lon-
don, 1965, first published 1961) 42ff. on the nature of explanatory interpolations as means of ex-
plaining archaic words and customs. As VANSINA states, >>Changes take place in societies, and
when tradition refers to certain social situations of the past which no longer exist, the knowledge
about them which is necessary for full understanding of a testimony gets lost<.
8 J. M. REDFIELD, Nature and Culture in the Iliad: The Tragedy of Hector (Chicago, 1975)
23: )>… song is for an audience and in this sense is located in history. In reconstructing the heroic
world, we implicity reconstruct the audience which understood it, the audience for whom the Iliad
was not … problematic. In this sense, and really only in this sense, the Iliad is a direct source for
its own period; ..
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Penelope’s Worth: Looming Large in Early Greece 259
open weaving and covert unweaving been detected. Telemachus has been ad-
vised to send Penelope home to her father who will provide a dowry for a se-
cond marriage (p 85-128. 195-197). The suitors would then continue to vie for
Penelope’s hand but away from the megaron of Odysseus/Telemachus.
From this scenario, it is possible to deduce only three possible explanations
for the great contest over Penelope’s hand. She, like Helen, is sought for her
exceptional beauty and intelligence. Secondly, it may be the richness of ex-
pected dowry that draws suitors to Penelope. Less obvious, though suggested,
is the possibility that a successful suitor would gain some of Penelope’s present
wealth and status as wife of Odysseus and mother of Telemachus.
The first and second explanations of Penelope’s worth need not be
challenged. What about the third; would she bring anything of her present cir-
cumstances to a new husband? While Telemachus is alive, it is not likely that
Penelope would gain the possessions of her husband. Odysseus’ property
would be his son’s inheritance. Remarriage would remove Penelope from
Odysseus’ estate both physically and legally. The suddenly conceived plot to
murder Telemachus in order to gain Odysseus’ property is added evidence that
Telemachus is the intended heir (, 330ff.; n 370ff.).
If not the wealth of Odysseus, is kingly office the prize of marriage to his
widow? The epics do not present a picture of firmly established official posi-
tions as J. HALVERSON has cogently argued9. The situation on Ithaca for the
twenty years of Odysseus’ absence is proof of the slight importance of fixed
administrative institutions in the workings of society. There has been no king;
no assemblies have been necessary; no collections of gifts have been
organized. Thus, there is no official kingly position to be bestowed by anyone.
There is, however, the status Odysseus has enjoyed in the island realm.
Perhaps Penelope could transfer that status to another. Even this suggestion
seems to fail because of Telemachus. There is some debate over which family
is the Pia0cT5tTpov (a 386-7 where Antinous concedes that kingship of
Ithaca is catpdiov to the genos of Telemachos and o 533-4 where
Theoclymenus tells Telemachus that there is no genos 0aGtX&f)TCpov). Just as
he is likely to inherit his father’s possessions, so too is Telemachus a candidate
for his father’s societal position.
That position is not particularly exalted. Our recreation of the world of
Homer has tended to be too lofty ‘. The evidence for the conditions of life
during the Greek Dark Age reveals a simple society: communities were not just
I J. HALVERSON, Social Order in the ‘Odyssey’, Hermes 113 (1985) 129-145.
10 Attempts to find a mirror image of the Mycenaean world in the epics are largely responsi-
ble for the distorted image. LUCE, for example, sees a structured hierarchical society reflected in
the epics. Much closer to the proper perspective is the description of M. 1. FINLEY, The World
of Odysseus (New York, 1965).
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260 CAROL G. THOMAS
small, they were tiny. The architecture of such villages is homogenous for the
most part and the artefacts bespeak no great distinctions in wealth. Contact
with other communities was minimal both within Greece and in the larger
Aegean and Mediterranean world. As in Thucydides’ account, people were
migratory and readily left their homes whenever overpowered. They planted
the ground only enough to gain a bare subsistence11. The world of the
Homeric epics is just such a simple society writ larger. Let us return to
Penelope for she symbolizes the measurement of wealth and position therein.
Consider Penelope’s kinship associations. Penelope is the daughter of
Icarius, brother of Tyndareos. Through fraternal lineage, she is the cousin of
Helen whose charms were only too well known in antiquity. Not only Helen
but many of the line showed special blood. Helen’s brothers were Castor and
Polydeuces, sired by Tyndareos and Zeus respectively. Such was their lineage
and prowess that they shared an undying status even after death. Because of
his marriage into the family, Menelaos has been told that he will win the
privilege of on-going life in the Isles of the Blessed (6 563-4. 569). Even the
Icarian line of the family shows an unusual degree of proximity to the divine:
the mythology of Penelope represents her as the mother of Pan. Marriage to
Penelope is not like marriage to most women. It holds a special place in the
eyes of the gods and, thus also, in the eyes of mortals.
The importance attached to lineage in the Homeric epics persists in the Ar-
chaic and full Classical periods. While the spheres of divine and human
regularly interact, certain individuals have a closer relationship to the gods.
The power of such a relationship is entirely real; it confers status that others
do not enjoy’2
To be allied with a family holding such distinction is of great worth in
several ways. It brings special esteem by the gods; it creates an >>alliance of the
closest sort, by which non-kin become kin<< 13 and it usually carries tangible
Thuc. 1.11,1-2. On the nature of the villages see ))Towns and Villages< 303-316 in J. N.
COLDSTREAM, Geometric Greece (London, 1977) who describes most villages as little more than
a >chaotic jumble of cottages<< (304). The artefacts are thoroughly discussed by A. M.
SNODGRASS, The Dark Age of Greece (Edinburgh, 1971) and V. R. d’A. DESBOROUGH, The Greek
Dark Ages (London, 1972). On population see A. M. SNODGRASS, Two Demographic Notes in:
The Greek Renaissance of the 8th Century B. C.: Tradition and Innovation ed. R. HAGG
(Stockholm, 1983) 167-171, >>… population had sunk to a point where a really prominent site
might be one that housed a community of, say, a hundred or two people … ceedingly impressive evidence of the Lefkandi cemeteries so far discovered has yet to attest a
population of much more than fifty people.< (169)
12 J. P. VERNANT, Du mythe a la raison: la formation de la pensee positive dans la Gr&e ar-
cha’lque, Annales E. S. C. 12 (1957) 183-206 on the role of certain people in a )>climat religieux
tres special< in the late eighth and early seventh centuries.
13 W. DONLAN, Reciprocities in Homer, Classical World 75 (1982) 137-174. >>… the over-
riding purpose of marriage is alliance, of the closest sort, by which non-kin become kin.o (146)
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marks. Alliance through marriage entails exchange and indeed the bride is part
of the exchange. Dowry is bestowed on the one side and gifts to the bride’s of status in view of all of the associations that these resources connote.
The scope and size of great wealth is symbolized by Penelope in a dramatic
fashion: through her skill at weaving. Penelope uses weaving as a ruse to
forestall the suitors but it is clear that she is an expert at the loom in creating
physical as well as intellectual products. There are a number of reasons for em-
phasizing this skill and for associating it with a >>queen<( rather than a lowly
slave girl.
In the Iliad and Odyssey the verb 6(paivciv has two primary uses. It
describes both the craft of working the loom and, figuratively, the art of devis-
ing counsels or wiles. In the first sense it is used of Helen and Andromache
in the Iliad (F 125; Z 456; X 440) and, in the Odyssey, of Penelope, Calypso
and the nymphs (i 94. 104; &, 517; T 149; X 129. 139; E 62; p 108). With this
meaning, it also describes the products of the loom, woven raiments (y 274;
A 136; v 218; o 231). In its figurative capacity, it occurs with neutral connota-
tion (F 212; H 324; I 93) and to depict guiles (Z 187; 8 678; c 356; t 422; T 139).
Penelope weaves garments and wiles very cleverly indeed. treated in recent work by anthropologists and sociologists who look at cultural
processes 14. Drawing on findings that are applicable to a number of periods
and cultures, it can be maintained that Homeric society is a ranked society,
>>one in which positions of valued status are somehow limited, so that no all
those of sufficient talent to occupy such statuses actually achieve them<< 15. A
sign of the validity of the definition is the importance of competition in the Odyssey are set upon gaining one of the limited positions of valued status.
Such status is gained and expressed in concrete forms. In circumstances
where the economy is based almost solely on products of the land and the rais-
ing of livestock, concrete expression of wealth will be basic food and animal
products 16. The importance of the land need not be stressed. Less noticed,
perhaps, is the very great worth of animal husbandry. Animals are a source of
food; equally important are their labour and secondary products. Moreover,
14 The work of scholars like C. RENFREW in England and L. BINFORD in the U.S. illustrates
the new perspectives offered by putting new questions to existing data.
‘5 M. FRIED, The Evolution of Political Society (New York, 1967) 109.
16 Much of the best work on ancient economic history in the past two decades has em-
phasized the role of agricultural wealth, control of which was >>the central source of wealth, status
and political power in the ancient world((. J. BINTLIFF, Settlement patterns, land tenure and social
structure: a diachronic model, in: Ranking, Resources and Exchange ed. C. RENFREW and S.
SHENNAN (Cambridge, 1982) 107.
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animals provide a means of preserving food not needed immediately. >>A par-
ticularly elegant form of indirect storage is the use of agriculture and animal
husbandry, in tandem, whereby surplus plant food is converved into a more
stable animal form which can be consumed in time of need 17.<< Those on the
margin of subsistence will not be able to store much, if any, food in the form
of animals.
Not only can animals serve as storage of food, they are moveable wealth
and, as such, can serve as an object of exchange. The role of animals in the
development of trade in prehistoric societies can be demonstrated”.8 Those
communities favorably located with respect to natural resources and to avenues
of interaction with other communities first undertake the exchange. And
within those communities, certain individuals have greater wealth to use in this
way. Both those individuals and those communities reap the rewards of their
initial wealth.
The Greek Dark Age communities look very similar to communities of
other times and places that have begun to show distinctions based on ac-
cumulation of basic products. Certain grave burials are slightly richer; one
dwelling in a village is of larger proportions. The more impressive grave goods
and dwellings are not qualitatively but quantitatively different I9.
What, then, caused >the primitive, peasant egoism that directs the atten-
tion of Homer’s characters to the possession of cattle, property, and treasures
…<< 20? The possession of goods was the means to and mark of status, that is,
‘ P. HALSTEAD and J. O’SHEA, A friend in need is a friend indeed: social storage and the
origins of social ranking, in: Ranking, Resources and Exchange 92-99, quote from 93.
18 For example, cattle served as the vehicle for major social and economic changes on the
great Hungarian plain in the fifth millennium B. C. See A. SHERRATT, Mobile resources: settle-
ment and exchange in early agricultural Europe, in: Ranking, Resources and Exchange 13-26. The
importance of sheep and goats in the Aegean is well documented from the Bronze Age through
the Dark Age and continuing in the Classical period. See J. KILLEN, The Linear B Tablets and
the Mycenaean Economy, in: Linear B: a 1984 Survey ed. A. MORPURGO DAVIES and Y. DUHOUX,
(Louvain-la-Neuve: Cabay, 1985) 241-305 and C. GAMBLE, Animal husbandry, population and
urbanisation, in: C. RENFREW and J. M. WAGSTAFF, eds., An Island Polity: The Archaeology of
Exploitation in Melos (Cambridge, 1982) 161-7.
‘9 On changes in burial goods generally see A. M. SNODGRASS, Archaic Greece: The Age of
Experiment (London, 1980) 52-54. Writing of Argos, R. HAc;G concludes that grave goods in-
dicate a homogeneous society in Protogeometric times but, by the eighth century, a differentiated
society is revealed through differences in rich and poor tombs although the differences are >>not
so striking as in many other societies((: Burial Customs and Social Differentiation in 8th-century
Argos, in: The Greek Renaissance 27-31. Reflective of architectural differentiation are sites such
as Koukounaries on Paros where a large building may be the house of a local leader. See D. U.
SCHILARDI, The Decline of the Geometric Settlement of Koukounaries at Paros, in: The Greek
Renaissance 173-183. At Emporio, a large building has also been tentatively identified as ?the
residence of a local chief<(, by COLDSTREAM, Geometric Greece 308.
20 B. SNELL, Poetry and Society (Bloomington, Indiana, 1961) 6.
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exceptional position. Just so, the skill of weaving was needed only in excep- are able to weave and create woven raiments that often are stored as treasures
as the Phaeacian gifts to Odysseus surely were. Of course, some weaving was However, raiments could be stored, >>impractically<< on the shelves in chambers
to be given in gift exchanges at a later point in time.
The wealth of Odysseus otKOC is really quite simple. Odysseus possesses
great flocks; Eumaeus can boast of twelve flocks of cattle, sheep, goats and
swine on the mainland as well as large flocks on Ithaca (t 96ff.). The well ducts. His wife can and does weave! Far more than a homely, domestic touch, ing to the institutions of state structure21. Only those who accumulate such Penelope is representative of the initial movement in that direction of the In other words, her own status is like that of Odysseus. She is (piXi to )>belongs to Odysseus<. Thus she is sought by the suitors. A second marriage
would bring to the new husband the aura of Odysseus himself. And the value
of aura is mighty in a culture where the spheres of visible and invisible, tangible
objects and intangible forces are one and the same22.
21 J. HAAS, The Evolution of the Prehistoric State (Columbia 1982); )…. the initial leaders of 22 B. SNELL, The Discovery of Mind tr. T. ROSENMEYER (Oxford, 1953) argues on the use of This content downloaded from 128.114.231.186 on Thu, 10 Oct 2019 00:03:09 UTC 264 KARIN ALT
Such an interpretation of Penelope’s value is a long way from matriarchy,
almost its antithesis. As such, it will not be welcome to those seeking to rescue
early Greece from what they deem to be an erroneous position with respect to
its women. Yet the interpretation accords with both the archaeological
evidence from the Greek Dark Age and with the language of the Homeric
epics. Penelope reflects high status even though she confers no kingly office.
What is more, she is of more value alive than dead, unlike the hapless
Ghanaian girl who was wooed by a king’s son and a chieftain’s son
simultaneously. When neither suitor was successful, they cut the girl in half
thereby sharing her status23.
Cambridge (England) and Seattle (U.S.) CAROL G. THOMAS
23 J. VANSINA, Oral Tradition 15-16.
EINIGE FRAGEN ZU DEN ‘KATHARMOI’
DES EMPEDOKLES (Schluf3teil)
(vgl. diese Zeitschrift 115, 1987, 385)
III
Nach Hesiods Zeitaltermythos’ lebten die Menschen des goldenen Ge-
schlechts ohne Sorgen, Muhen, Jammer und ohne Alter; die Erde brachte
ihnen von selbst Frucht in Fulle hervor. Ob und wie sie die Gotter verehrten,
wird nicht vermerkt, doch vermutlich taten sie das Gebuhrende, denn eben das
Versagen darin wird dem silbernen Geschlecht angelastet und bewirkte seinen
Untergang durch Zeus. Undenkbar, dal3 fur Hesiod die Tiere um ihrer selbst genheit; seit dem Ur-Opfer von Mekone, bei dem Prometheus den folgen-
schweren Betrug der Teilung beging, sind sie lediglich Objekte beim
Gotterkult2. Die Legende vom goldenen Zeitalter unter Kronos, die pessimi-
stische Sicht der weiteren Entwicklung lal3t sich schwerlich vereinbaren mit
dem Sukzessionsgeschehen der ‘Theogonie’ Hesiods, das mit der Oberwin- I Hes. Erga 109ff. Aisch. Prom. 462ff.
This content downloaded from 128.114.231.186 on Thu, 10 Oct 2019 00:03:09 UTC [257] Hermes, Vol. 116, No. 3 (3rd Qtr., 1988), pp. 257-386+III-IV
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
father are given on the other. Quantity of material resources is another mark
This cleverness takes us to a basic dimension of the world of Odysseus, one
Homeric poems: the thoughts and energies of heroes in both the Iliad and
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tional households. In the list of weavers of the Iliad and Odyssey, Penelope is
joined by Helen, Andromache, Calypso and nymphs. This is no demeaning
ability; in fact, it belongs to the mighty not the lowly of society. These women
directed at production of practical items, such as the shroud for Laertes.
being of those animals is a fundamental concern to the members of the OiKO;.
Telemachus goes directly to the fields on his return from sandy Pylos (o 555-7)
and the two faithful male servants to Odysseus are herders. Odysseus possesses
wealth great enough to be able to employ his animals for their secondary pro-
accumulation of this form of wealth has been shown to lead to greater political
centralization and economic specialization as societies move from rank order-
products can fully exercise the functions of leadership.
emergence of state in early Greece. She symbolizes in simple fashion the basis
of Odysseus’ position in his community and in the world beyond Ithaca. She
is a measure of his wealth in all of its manifestations. Her ancestry is exalted
and the gods have regularly selected members of her line for special distinc-
tion. She herself possesses personal beauty and stature. Her wit is demon-
strated by the loom as she is able to spin wiles as well as cloths. And that same
loom illustrates the great wealth of the household.
Odysseus because she is so like him. In BRUNO SNELL’S description, she
the society are already in a central economic position and may be expected to assume a similar
position in the newly initiated or centralized economic system
the same word for both an organ and the function of that organ that external and internal are
not differentiated in the Homeric epic.
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willen wichtig sein konnten bei der Darstellung glucklicher Phasen der Vergan-
dung des Kronos und der Titanen auf den strahlenden Sieg des Zeus hinzielt
2 Theog. 535 ff. Ihr Nutzen fur die Menschen bei der Landwirtschaft klingt an Erga 46. Vgl.
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258
259
260
261
262
263
264
Front Matter
Penelope’s Worth: Looming Large in Early Greece [pp. 257-264]
Einige Fragen zu den ‘Katharmoi’ des Empedokles (Schlußteil) III [pp. 264-271]
Apollons Orakelspruch im ‘Ion’ des Euripides [pp. 272-279]
Aristotle on Poetry and Imitation [pp. 279-291]
Aion Plutonios [pp. 291-303]
Zum römischen Gemeindepatronat im griechischen Osten [pp. 304-324]
Die Verstaatlichung der Gladiatorenspiele [pp. 324-337]
Vergilische Elemente in Prudentius’ ‘Contra Symmachum’ [pp. 337-342]
Adnoten zu den Vergilargumenta Al Sh. B. 2 und verwandten Gedichten [pp. 343-357]
U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, W. Kranz und das “Dritte Reich” [pp. 357-376]
Miszellen
Nochmals Sophokles, Phil. 300 [pp. 377-378]
The Date of Kallias’ ‘Pedetai’ [pp. 379-383]
Die Datierung des Prozesses gegen Timarchos (346/5) [pp. 383-386]
Back Matter [pp. III-IV]
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