92 - Achiever Papers

Visual analysis (250-350 words) that compares and contrasts the two sculptural figures below and fully addresses the prompt.

Cover Story
AFRICA

Art co[inoisseurs in Britain and elsewhere
are currently being treated to an exhibition
of some of the finest art to have come from
Africa, specifically from lle-ife in Nigeria. The
exhibition, which runs tili 6 June, is part of a
season of African art and culture at the British
Museum, mounted to coincide with Nigeria’s
50th independence anniversary celebrations.
Juliet Highet has been to see it, and she was
bowled over.

T
he entrance room was dark; straight ahead v̂ -as a dramaii-
taliy lit crowned head of glowing copper. The impact
was stunning – tíie head radiating divine energy, yet the
sculpture Vi’as restrained, refined and infinitely dignified.
Immediately one was aware of being in the presence of

great art, immersed in a profound spiritual experience. Kingdom
of Ife: Sculptures from West Africa is part of a season of African
art and culture at the British Museum to coincide with the 50th
independence anniversary celebrations of Nigeria, the highlight
of which falls on 1 October 2010, the actual Independence Day.

The works exhibited in London until 6 June 2010 have already
been shown in Spain, and will travel on a North American tour
until April 2012 to the Houston Museum of Fine Arts, the Virginia
Museum of Fine Arts at Richmond, the Indianapolis Museum of
Art, and the Museum of African Art in New York. The exhibition
tells thestory of the legendary city of Ile-Ife through some of the
most poetically beautiful sculptures created in Africa, artworks
acknowledged now as ranking among the most technically sophis-
ticated and aesthetically remarkable in the history of world art.

The metal» terracotta and stone sculptures mostly date from
the 12th to the 15th centuries, created by artists from Ife, then a
powerful city-state located in present-day southwestern Nigeria.

in all its glory
Almost 100 sculptures have been lent by Nigeria’s National Com-
mission for Museums 6i Monuments whose director-general, Dr
Joseph Eboreieme, commetited that although “some ofthese great
treasures have travelled beyond our borders before, there has never
been an exhibition devoted to exploring the great variety of Ife
art… It shows how the idea of divine ruletship inspired artists
in Nigeria, as early as the 9th century… and how the artists were
[also] concerned with the day-to-day lives of ordinary people.”

The technological virtuosity of these sculptors created an im-
pressive diversity of artworks, the most moving and exquisite of
which are the portrait heads and human figures, mostly in cop-
per alloy, of Ife’s kings and queens, complete with magnificent
royal regalia, indicating the city’s wealth, power and influence.
The terracotta and stone sculptures are also figurative, some be-
ing expressive caricatures, others showing youth and old age or
disease and deformity. Whereas the metal works convey serenity
and se It-assurance, some of the terracottas depict violence and
misfortune, as in those of gagged prisoners awaiting execution;
arguably these were the polarities of life in lie at that time.

Exquisite sculptures of Ife’s kings and queens, such as this Olukun
piece, come with magnificent royal regalia

14INEW AFRICAN May 2010

Cover Story
AFRICA

Such was the height of creative refinement, sensitivity and
technical accomplishment of Ife art, that when Europeans first
“discovered” it in the early zoth century, they could not believe
that such “classical” work was of African origin, and assumed it
was Greek. Tlie numinous quality and idealised naturalism so
universally admired is due to the fact that these lifelike human
representations were never intended as actual portraits, though
each has notahle individual characteristics. “They are icons of
divine tulership, as well as expressions ofthe Yoruba belief
in the divinity inherent in all living things, especially human
beings.

Ife rulers were empowered in life by the deities, and some
were deified themselves after death. Politics and religion, secular
and sacred are interwoven in Yoruba philosophy. As Thurston
Shaw wrote about the extraordinary copper-alloy heads, they are
“striking exemplifications of repose and serenity – in fact, all the
qualities of character (and hence of beauty) most sought after in
a ruler… They are explorations ofthe nature of kings and king-
ship, of divine authority and its proper exercise.”

From the 12th to the 15th centuries, Ife flourished as a power-
ful, prosperous and cosmopolitan city-state, and these sculptures
convey an impression of at least some ofthe inhabitants’ privileged
lifestyle. A[ that time it was an influential centre of commerce
connected to extensive local and long-distance trade networks,
enabling the region to flourish and Ife to establish significant
political and religious authority. It also attracted craftspeople,
artists and entrepreneurs from far and wide. Ife’s rulers were noted
patrons of brass-casting, bead-making and weaving.

Ife is an abbreviation of Ile-lfe, meaning the House of Ife,
or the People of Ife’s House. Today Ife is still regarded as the
spiritual heartland ofthe Yoruba people and their descendants,
who number more than 35 million, living in Nigeria, other areas
of West Africa, and scattered around the globe.

According to Yoruba myth, Ife was the centre ofthe creation
ofthe world and all its people. It is tbe ancestral home of 16 leg-
endary kingdoms that started to flourish around 1100-1200 C.E.
The kings, queens and deities at the core of Yoruba oral history
still characterise its culture, and all trace their origins to this
ancient centre of divinity, royalty, art and trade.

Today, Ife i.s a bustling metropolis, with a population of around
600,000, the city supporting a university, arts centre, palace
and many sacred shrines and groves. In two of these groves in
particular, numerous sculptures were found. The Iwinrin Grove
revealed a substantial number of terracotta heads and fragments
from life-size figures; while the Ore Grove was filled with stone
monoliths, human and animal sculptures. Both are still places
of active ceremonial life where shrines contain old objects as well
as newer ones.

Other sites, like Ita Yemoo, have yielded spectacular pieces with
royal associations including the only complete king figure and an
exquisite terracotta head believed to be a queen. At the royal burial
site of Lafogido, terracotta elephant and hippopotamus heads were
discovered, adorned with beaded regalia and diadems, elephants
having royal associations. The hippo is called “the elephant of
the water”, and the Ooni or King of Ife is actually referred to as
an elephant. According to Yoruba legend, “One does not say that
the Ooni is dead but that the elephant has fallen.”

“Such was the height of creative
refinement, sensitivity and technicai
accompiishment of Ife art, that when
Europeans first ‘discovered’ it in the
early 20th century, they couid not
beiieve that such ‘ciassicai’ woric was
of African origin, and assumed it was
Greelc.”

16INEW AFRICAN May 2010

Near the Ooni’s palace is the Wunmonije Compound, where
in 1938, a cache of wonderful copper-alloy heads was dug up, three
with crowns. Another marvellous crowned head called Olokun
was found in the Olokun Grove, used in rites honouring Olokun,
goddess of the sea and patroness of bead-making. Some sculptures
were brought to the Ooni’s palace for safekeeping, others actively
preserved there for rituals.

In an “introduction” to the book accompanying the exhibition,
Enid Schildkrout of the Museum of African Art, New York, points
out: “Today, the rulers, divinities, deified ancestors, and even some
of the animals depicted in Ife art are all still actively celebrated
among [he Yoruba-speaking people in modern Nigeria and in
the Yoruba Diaspora… The present ruler or OOHÍ of Ife… is the
highest-ranking traditional ruler of the Yoruba people… Like his
forbears, when he sits in state he wears a beaded crown and holds

Masterpieces by Ife sculptors of their kings and queens

a royal sceptre and whisk. Much of his regalia is similar
to that worn by the two copper-alloy figures of an

Ooni in the exhibition… both [are] more than 700
years old.

“In Ife today, people worship at shrines dedicated
to the same deities that are referred to in the ancient

city-state’s art… Some of the shrines are dedicated to
healing; others are associated with particular deities who
control certain spheres of activity, not only human but
also tbe forces in nature… At festivals honouring past
rulers, who are also, by definition, deities, participants

wear insignia and decorate their bodies in ways that re-
semble numerous details of Ife’s ancient art.”

Kingdom oflfe: Sculptures from West Africa includes
several important sculptures and objects highlighting

Ife’s relationship to other Nigerian and West African
cultures. “The art of metal casting was passed on to the
city-state of Benin, producing more stylised work.
A late 15th century messenger figure wears a cross

around his neck signifying the connection be-
tween Benin and Ife, the cross being a symbol

of cosmic order. He also has “cat-whisker”
facial marks found in some Ife terracottas.

Two other massive and elaborate copper
-alloy figures hail from Tadaon the Niger

River notth of Ife – a Male Figure has a
pair of discs on his head featuring horned heads with ser-
pents emerging from the nostrils, a motif found on sculpture
from Ife, Owo and Benin. In this context, snakes express an

emanation of special spiritual energy {ase). The other figure
is a superb Bowman from Jebba Island.

Yet none of them exude the refinement and sensitivity of
the incomparable Ife metal sculptures. A terracotta figure from

Owo, southeast oflfe, does show how the naturalism charac-
teristic of Ife art was also found in other major centres of art
production in Nigeria. The face is striated, though not as finely
carved as the parallel striation incising many Ife sculptures. These
representations of scarification marks were markers of identity,
signifying origin, status or membership of a certain organisation.
Another theory is that they may represent the beaded veils that
Yoruba rulers wore and still wear to conceal their faces on some
ceremonial occasions.

It is fascinating how the art of Ife continues to relate to the
lives of Nigerians today, as part of ongoing tradition, not just as
relics of the past, but also in the form of fresh interpretations by
contemporary Yoruba artists, speaking to a new audience of local
patrons and international collectors. Also, works from ancient
Ife have become iconic symbols of regional and national identity,
and of pan-African consciousness. The Olokun head was chosen
as the logo for the All-Africa Cames, and has been adapted as a
“brand” icon by numerous educational and commercial institu-
tions. Such images have become universal symbols of African
heritage. The legacy oflfe has spread throughout the world. I

May 2010 HEW AFRICAN 117

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The NOK of Nigeria

Author(s): Roger Atwood

Source: Archaeology , July/August 2011, Vol. 64, No. 4 (July/August 2011), pp. 34-38

Published by: Archaeological Institute of America

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The
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• n . ^HHP¿
of Nigeria
Unlocking the secrets of West
Africa’s earliest known civilization

by Roger Atwood

In The visitor had sifying 1943, spent visitor in ancient British the the carried central previous archaeologist artifacts a terracotta Nigerian few found years Bernard head town on gathering a that, of rugged Fagg Jos, he received where and said, plateau* clas- had he a

visitor in the central Nigerian town of Jos, where he
had spent the previous few years gathering and clas-
sifying ancient artifacts found on a rugged plateau*
The visitor carried a terracotta head that, he said, had

been perched atop a scarecrow in a nearby yam field* Fagg
was intrigued* The piece resembled a terracotta monkey head
he had seen a few years earlier, and neither piece matched the
artifacts of any known ancient African civilization*

Fagg, a man of boundless curiosity and energy, traveled
across central Nigeria looking for similar artifacts* As he
recounted later, Fagg discovered local people had been
finding terracottas in odd places for years – buried under
a hockey field, perched on a rocky hilltop, protruding from
piles of gravel released by power-hoses in tin mining* He set
up shop in a whitewashed cottage that still stands outside
the village of Nok and soon gathered nearly 200 terracottas
through purchase, persuasion, and his own excavations* Soil
analysis from the spots where the artifacts were found dated
them to around 500 b*c* This seemed impossible since the
type of complex societies that would have produced such
works were not supposed to have existed in West Africa that
early* But when Fagg subjected plant matter found embedded
in the terracotta to the then-new technique of radiocarbon
dating, the dates ranged from 440 b*c* to a*d* 200* He later
dated the scarecrow head – now called the Temaa Head after

the village where it was found –
to about 500 b*c* using a pro-
cess called thermoluminescence

which gauges the time since
baked clay was fired* Through a
combination of luck, legwork, and new dating techniques,
Fagg and his collaborators had apparently discovered a hith-
erto unknown civilization, which he named Nok*

One excavation site, near the village of Taruga, revealed
something else Fagg had not expected: iron furnaces* He
found 13 such furnaces, and terracotta figurines were in such
close association – inside the furnaces and around them –

that he postulated the terracottas were objects of worship to
aid blacksmithing and smelting* Carbon dating of charcoal
inside the furnaces revealed dates as far back as 280 b*c*, giv-
ing Nok the earliest dates for iron smelting in sub-Saharan
Africa up to that time* The high number of smelters and
quantity of terracottas suggested he had found evidence of
a dense, settled population*

Thus, in short order, Fagg had discovered some of the key
markers of an advanced civilization: refined art and orga-
nized worship, metal smelting, and sufficient population to
support these activities* But he knew such a society did not
appear in isolation* Fagg, now back at Oxford University in
England, wrote that Nok culture had almost certainly begun
earlier and survived longer than he had evidence for at the
time* “It was the product of a mature tradition,” he wrote,
“with the probability of a long antecedent history, of which
as yet, no trace has been found*”

ARCHAEOLOGY • July/August 2011

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A terracotta head created by the Nok culture, one of ancient
West Africa’s most advanced civilizations, emerges at a dig

site near Janjala, Nigeria.
After ration the scrubby, 40 in years the hilly area, of lands doing scholars where little are archaeological Fagg now worked returning and explo- are to

ration in the area, scholars are now returning to
the scrubby, hilly lands where Fagg worked and are

finding that, indeed, the Nok thrived for longer than he had
realized* They may have been the first complex civilization in
West Africa, existing from at least 900 b*c* to about a.D. 200.
Their terracottas are now some of the most iconic ancient

objects from Africa* And they may be the first society in
Africa south of the Sahara to smelt iron, although at least
half a dozen competitors for that title have surfaced since
Fagg first excavated a Nok furnace*

Nigeria has a reputation for chaos, corruption, and expensive
visas that has kept archaeologists away and drastically slowed
the pace of research* In 1959, anthropologist George Murdock
quipped that for every ton of earth moved by archaeologists on
the Nile, a teaspoon is moved on the Niger* Scholarship has
also been hampered by an almost 40-year campaign of looting
at Nok sites fed by the growing appetite for African antiquities
among collectors in the United States and Europe*

“No one continued with the work of Bernard Fagg* Instead

of scientific exploration, the Nok became a victim of illegal
digging and international art dealers,” says Peter Breunig,
of the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in Frankfurt,
Germany* Looting tapered off after about 2005 because of
tighter export restrictions and a glut of fakes that frightened
off collectors* Now, interest in Iron Age societies in Africa
is surging as archaeologists contemplate a wide-open field
that could hold essential insights into how technologies –
especially iron – spread across continents*

Breunig and his colleague Nicole Rupp are leading a
team of German and Nigerian researchers, students, and
even former looters excavating sites over some 150 square
miles in central Nigeria, about two hours drive north of the
capital, Abuja* Their study area is but a microcosm of the
Nok world, which covered more than 30,000 square miles,
an area the size of Portugal*

www.archaeology.org 35

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For more than 2,000 years since the start of the Nok
period, Nigerians have been building stone house bases
like this one (above). The Nok were expert terracotta
craftsman and their human figurines are one of the 4

most distinctive artifacts they left behind (right). 1

ON towering Rupp A BLACK and her over GRANITE team the are MOUNTAIN savannah, digging ■ J ^
towering over the savannah, J
Rupp and her team are digging ■

neat trenches at the summit* Within ■

minutes, they start to find pottery sherds, 1
grinding stones, and fragments of red ter- I
racotta sculpture of the type first found by 1
Fagg. Within an hour, the excavators have
filled three big Ziploc bags with artifacts*
Among them is a terracotta arm broken off
of a larger statue. Its coarse, grainy surface
and realistic modeling immediately identify
it as distinctively Nok* In his classic survey
or African art, rrank Willet wrote that the ‘

Nok created Africa’s earliest sculptural tradition
outside of Egypt* Like their contemporaries, the
soldier-builders of Xian, China, the Nok mastered the

almost limitless sculptural possibilities of terracotta* With it
they created figures depicting illness, warfare, love, and music*
For example, Rupp and Breunig s team has found a sculpture
of a man and woman kneeling in front of each other, their
arms wrapped around each other in a loving embrace, and
also several bare-buttocked prisoners with ropes around their

necks and waists* Another figure, which
has a skull for a head and wears an amulet

around his neck, is shaking two instru-
ments resembling maracas* There is also a
figure of a man with a wispy moustache,
mouth open, as if in speech or song, and
one of a man playing a drum resting

Í between his legs, possibly the earliest

I unig depiction sub-Saharan and Rupp of musical Africa* found At performance 1,700 one site, pieces Bre- of in
sub-Saharan Africa* At one site, Bre-

unig and Rupp found 1,700 pieces of
terracotta in barely 450 square yards,

indicating a large population*
Despite the thematic variety, Nok

terracotta has some characteristics that

persist over hundreds of square miles
and centuries of production* Figures

m almost always show large-headed people
I with almond-shaped eyes and parted lips* They
Ì often have grand headdresses or hairdos, which
I may indicate high status* A common pose, and

one much imitated by forgers, shows a man sitting
with his arms resting on his knees, gazing outward*

Microscopic inspection of the clay used in the terracotta
shows it to be remarkably uniform over the whole Nok area,
suggesting that the clay came from a single, yet-undiscovered
source* It could, says Breunig, support the idea of a unified
Nok state or central authority of some kind*”The homogene-
ity of the clay used for terracotta might indicate centralized

36 ARCHAEOLOGY • July/August 2011

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The triangular eyes and parted lips
of this Nok terracotta figurine are
characteristic of an artistic style

that endured for millennia even

after the Nok culture disappeared.
This one may represent a deity, an

ancestor, or be a portrait.

At Nok sites, metal tools made
around 500 b.c. have been found

alongside stone tools, attesting to the
manufacture of iron while stone was

still being used.

production* But other interpretations, including the
concentration of skilled specialists, are no less prob-
able at the moment,” says Breunig* “I think there was
a set of respected, central rules that were enforced either
through authorities, or through common beliefs, or both”

Rupp agrees* “When you look at a piece like this,” she
says, referring to the just-discovered arm, “you can see that
the Nok were experts at making terracotta* There was a
specialized, creative class” There may have been a kind of
terracotta “guild,” which, if true, would suggest the Nok had
well- developed class hierarchy, she adds*

Breunig small ments, knives, including and most Rupp fearsome of have which found spear are about points, fairly crude-looking* 20 bracelets, iron imple- and Breunig ments, including fearsome spear points, bracelets, and small knives, most of which are fairly crude-looking*
How and when Africans developed iron is important
because metallurgy is considered a crucial marker in the
shift to complex societies* Manufacturing metal means bet-
ter tools for farming, hunting, and preparing food, as well as
better weapons for waging war and gaining resources* Yet
whether metal-working creates the conditions for civiliza-
tion to flourish or vice versa remains an open question for
archaeologists*

Carbon dating on charcoal that Breunig gathered from
a Nok iron smelter at a site called Intini yielded a date of
between 519 and 410 b*c*, suggesting that iron technology
was established earlier than previous scholars, including Fagg,
had realized* These may not be the oldest smelters in sub-
Saharan Africa, however* French archaeologists have located
evidence of iron-smelting in the Termit Hills of Niger from
as early as 1400 b*c*, but critics point out that the wood
used for dating could have been centuries old, a problem
that dogs carbon dating, especially in very arid places such
as Niger, where the wood desiccates and lasts longer* Bre-
unig acknowledges that the problem could distort dates for
the Intini furnace as well* But he has an important piece of
evidence – Nok pottery, found inside the furnace alongside
the charcoal, suggesting that they were placed there around
the same time*

www.archaeology.org 37

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Archaeologist Peter Breunig visits the family of a team member near
the excavation site.

As a result of his research, Breunig has been able to
isolate a moment in time when iron and stone implements
coexisted* Excavators regularly find iron tools only a short
distance from Nok stone axes, suggesting they were used in
the same communities, maybe even the same households*
“When iron first develops, it might be too rare or too costly
to be wasted on axes or other things that you can make with
stone/’ he says* “Our hypothesis is that iron tools replaced
stone tools only after the technology was developed enough
to deliver sufficient quantities of iron* The Nok is an almost
perfect culture on which to test this assumption*”

Breunig s evidence has also reinforced a view held by
most archaeologists that ancient West Africans moved from
stone tools directly to iron, without an intervening copper
age* That’s a leap that few other parts of the world appear
to have made* With the exception of a site in Mauritania
known as Grotte aux Chauves-souris, where, starting in
1968, French archaeologists found copper tools and iurnaces
dating from 800 to 200 b*c*, and another in Niger called
Cuivre II, excavated by French archaeologists in the 1980s
and dating from slightly earlier, researchers have yet to find
evidence of copper smelting before iron smelting anywhere
in West Africa* Its transition from Stone Age to Iron Age
has puzzled researchers since Western European and North
African cultures moved into iron after first smelting copper
for a millennium or so (while others, such as those in Peru,
made copper for centuries without ever developing iron)*”In
the sense of a progression of technological periods, with few
exceptions, there was not a Copper Age between the Stone
and Iron ages in West Africa,” says Tom Fenn, an expert on
African metallurgy at the University of Arizona*

Iron technology was probably brought across the Sahara
by travelers from North Africa, says Rod Mcintosh, an
African specialist at Yale University* But archaeologists are
looking at the possibility that West Africans developed

iron-working technology autonomously, possibly starting
with the Nok* Iron technology, and whether it was imported
from across the Sahara or developed in West Africa, is cur-
rently a red-hot topic in the scholarly community* Skeptics
of autonomous development are accused of denigrating the
achievements of African technology, whereas believers are
accused of lacking hard evidence* “It has become a political
debate,” says Breunig* He will not commit to one side of
the argument over the other before he excavates more Nok
smelters, which he plans to do with a French archaeometal-
lurgist next year*

One skeptic is Rüdiger Krause, a European Iron Age
expert at Goethe University* “When people see that some-
body else has better technology, it moves very fast* And iron
knives are much better than stone* You can sharpen them,”
he says* “Mobility was very high in the ancient world* From
the north coast of Africa to Nigeria is not a great distance
for the movement of a new technology”

Little Nok ended* population is Sometime understood declined, after a*d* about as 200, attested how the to once-thriving Nok by a society sharp
ended* Sometime after a*d* 200, the once-thriving
Nok population declined, as attested to by a sharp

drop in the volume of pottery and terracotta in soil layers
corresponding to those years* Overexploitation of natural
resources and a heavy reliance on charcoal may have played
a role, says Breunig*

Even more puzzling is Noks legacy to later cultures* Art
historians have long seen Nok as an isolated phenomenon,
a splendid relic cut off from the sequence of African art
over the next two millennia* Later civilizations in southern

Nigeria had advanced metalworking skills and a tradition of
naturalistic portraiture, and art historians are looking more
closely at what they might owe to Nok* The most celebrated
of these later cultures was Ife (pronounced EE-feh), whose
people in southwestern Nigeria turned bronze into stunning

portrait heads around a*d* 1300*
“We would need more research to establish a stylistic

continuum between Nok and Ife,” says Musa Hambolu,
research director at Nigerias National Commission for
Museums and Monuments in Abuja*”To do this would
require more detailed study of Nok sculptures because,
for now, the evidence is very fragmentary”

Bernard Fagg wrestled with this question – where
did Nok culture come from, and where did it go?
He wrote about the “striking similarities of style and
subject matter” between Nok and Ife but acknowl-
edged there was no proof the people of Ife had ever
seen Nok terracottas* Now Breunig is trying to solve
that riddle* “In the space of 1,000 years, West Africa
moved from sedentary farming complexes like Nok
to great empires, [such as Ife and Benin],” he says*
“No society is completely isolated in time* Thaťs a
story we re starting to tell” ■

Roger Atwood is a contributing editor to
Archaeology* He currently lives in London ♦

ARCHAEOLOGY • July/August 2011
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Contents

p. 34
p. 35
p. 36
p. 37
p. [38]

Issue Table of Contents

Archaeology, Vol. 64, No. 4 (July/August 2011) pp. 1-68
Front Matter
EDITOR’S LETTER: Cityscapes and Dig Sites [pp. 6-6]
FROM THE PRESIDENT: A Lasting Legacy [pp. 8-8]
LETTERS [pp. 10-10]
From the Trenches [pp. 11-12, 14-18]
REVIEWS
Rescuing the Rapanui [pp. 20-20]
How Animals Shaped Humanity [pp. 20-21]
WORLD ROUNDUP [pp. 22-23]
Rebuilding Beirut [pp. 24-29]
Digging Into Technology’s Past [pp. 30-33]
The NOK of Nigeria [pp. 34-38]
Assisi’s Roman Villa [pp. 39-43]
Australia’s Shackled Pioneers [pp. 44-50]
LETTER FROM PITTSBURGH
The Steel City Recycles Its Past [pp. 53-54, 56, 60, 62]
Dispatches from the AIA [pp. 65-66]
ARTIFACT [pp. 68-68]
Back Matter

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